Encyclopaedia Britannica Volume 4, Slice 1 Part 37

BODIN, JEAN (1530-1596), French political philosopher, was born at Angers in 1530. Having studied law at Toulouse and lectured there on jurisprudence, he settled in Paris as an advocate, but soon applied himself to literature. In 1555 he published his first work, a translation of Oppian's _Cynegeticon_ into Latin verse, with a commentary. The celebrated scholar, Turnebus, complained that some of his emendations had been appropriated without acknowledgment. In 1588, in refutation of the views of the seigneur de Malestroit, comptroller of the mint, who maintained that there had been no rise of prices in France during the three preceding centuries, he published his _Responsio ad Paradoxa Malestretti_ (_Reponse aux paradoxes de M. Malestroit_), which the first time explained in a nearly satisfactory manner the revolution of prices which took place in the 16th century. Bodin showed a more rational appreciation than many of his contemporaries of the causes of this revolution, and the relation of the variations in money to the market values of wares in general as well as to the wages of labour. He saw that the amount of money in circulation did not const.i.tute the wealth of the community, and that the prohibition of the export of the precious metals was rendered inoperative by the necessities of trade.

This tract, the _Discours sur les causes de l'exterme cherte qui est aujourdhuy en France_ (1574), and the disquisition on public revenues in the sixth book of the _Republique_, ent.i.tle Bodin to a distinguished position among the earlier economists.

His learning, genial disposition, and conversational powers won him the favor of Henry III. and of his brother, the duc d'Alencon; and he was appointed king's attorney at Laon in 1576. In this year he married, performed his most brilliant service to his country, and completed his greatest literary work. Elected by the _tiers etat_ of Vermandois to represent it in the states-general of Blois, he contended with skill and boldness in extremely difficult circ.u.mstances for freedom of conscience, justice and peace. The n.o.bility and clergy favoured the League, and urged the king to force his subjects to profess the Catholic religion.

When Bodin found he could not prevent this resolution being carried, he contrived to get inserted in the pet.i.tion drawn up by the states the clause "without war," which practically rendered nugatory all its other clauses. While he thus resisted the clergy and n.o.bility he successfully opposed the demand of the king to be allowed to alienate the public lands and royal demesnes, although the chief deputies had been won over to a.s.sent. This lost him the favour of the king, who wanted money on any terms. In 1581 he acted as secretary to the duc d'Alencon when that prince came over to England to seek the hand of Queen Elizabeth. Here he had the pleasure of finding that the _Republique_ was studied at London and Cambridge, although in a barbarous Latin translation. This determined him to translate his work into Latin himself (1586). The latter part of Bodin's life was spent at Laon, which he is said to have persuaded to declare for the League in 1589, and for Henry IV. five years afterwards. He died of the plague in 1596, and was buried in the church of the Carmelites.

With all his breadth and liberality of mind Bodin was a credulous believer in witchcraft, the virtues of numbers and the power of the stars, and in 1580 he published the _Demonomanie des sorciers_, a work which shows that he was not exempt from the prejudices of the age.

Himself regarded by most of his contemporaries as a sceptic, and by some as an atheist, he denounced all who dared to disbelieve in sorcery, and urged the burning of witches and wizards. It might, perhaps, have gone hard with him if his counsel had been strictly followed, as he confessed to have had from his thirty-seventh year a friendly demon, who, if properly invoked, touched his right ear when he purposed doing what was wrong, and his left when he meditated doing good.

His chief work, the _Six livres de la Republique_ (Paris, 1576), which pa.s.sed through several editions in his lifetime, that of 1583 having as an appendix _L'Apologie de Rene Herpin_ (Bodin himself), was the first modern attempt to construct an elaborate system of political science. It is perhaps the most important work of its kind between Aristotle and modern writers. Though he was much indebted to Aristotle he used the material to advantage, adding much from his own experience and historical knowledge. In harmony with the conditions of his age, he approved of absolute governments, though at the same time they must, he thought, be controlled by const.i.tutional laws. He entered into an elaborate defence of individual property against Plato and More, rather perhaps because the scheme of his work required the treatment of that theme than because it was practically urgent in his day, when the excesses of the Anabaptists had produced a strong feeling against communistic doctrines. He was under the general influence of the mercantilist views, and approved of energetic governmental interference in industrial matters, of high taxes on foreign manufactures and low duties on raw materials and articles of food, and attached great importance to a dense population. But he was not a blind follower of the system; he wished for unlimited freedom of trade in many cases; and he was in advance of his more eminent contemporary Montaigne in perceiving that the gain of one nation is not necessarily the loss of another. To the public finances, which he called "the sinews of the state," he devoted much attention, and insisted on the duties of the government in respect to the right adjustment of taxation. In general he deserves the praise of steadily keeping in view the higher aims and interests of society in connexion with the regulation and development of its material life.

Among his other works are _Oratio de inst.i.tuenda in republica juventate_ (1559); _Methodus ad facilem historiarum cognitionem_ (1566); _Universale Naturae Theatrum_ (1596, French trans. by Fougerolles, 1597), and the _Colloquium Heptaplomeres de abditis rerum sublimium arcanis_, written in 1588, published first by Guhrauer (1841), and in a complete form by L. Noack (1857). The last is a philosophy of naturalism in the form of a conversation between seven learned men--a Jew, a Mahommedan, a Lutheran, a Zwinglian, a Roman Catholic, an Epicurean and a Theist. The conclusion to which they are represented as coming is that they will live together in charity and toleration, and cease from further disputation as to religion. It is curious that Leibnitz, who originally regarded the _Colloquium_ as the work of a professed enemy of Christianity, subsequently described it as a most valuable production (cf. M. Carriere, _Weltanschauung_, p. 317).

See H. Baudrillart, _J. Bodin et son temps_ (Paris, 1853); Ad. Franck, _Reformateurs et publicistes de l'Europe_ (Paris, 1864); N.

Planchenault, _etudes sur Jean Bodin_ (Angers, 1858); E. de Barthelemy, _etude sur J. Bodin_ (Paris, 1876); for the political philosophy of Bodin, see P. Janet, _Hist. de la science polit._ (3rd ed., Paris, 1887); Hancke, _B. Studien uber d. Begriff d.

Souveranitat_ (Breslau, 1894), A. Bardoux. _Les Legistes et leur influence sur la soc. francaise_; Fournol, _Bodin predecesseur de Montesquieu_ (Paris, 1896); for his political economy, J.K. Ingram, _Hist. of Pol. Econ._ (London, 1888); for his ethical teaching, A.

Desjardins, _Les Moralistes francais du seizieme siecle_, ch. v.; and for his historical views, R. Flint's _Philosophy of History in Europe_ (ed. 1893), pp. 190 foll.

BODKIN (Early Eng. _boydekin_, a dagger, a word of unknown origin, possibly connected with the Gaelic _biodag_, a short sword), a small, needle-like instrument of steel or bone with a flattened k.n.o.b at one end, used in needlework. It has one or more slits or eyes, through which cord, tape or ribbon can be pa.s.sed, for threading through a hem or series of loops. The word is also used of a small piercing instrument for making holes in cloth, &c.

BODLE or BODDLE (said to be from Bothwell, the name of a mint-master), a Scottish copper coin worth about one-sixth of an English penny, first issued under Charles II. It survives in the phrase "not to care a bodle."

BODLEY, GEORGE FREDERICK (1827-1907), English architect, was the youngest son of a physician at Brighton, his elder brother, the Rev.

W.H. Bodley, becoming a well-known Roman Catholic preacher and a professor at Oscott. He was articled to the famous architect Sir Gilbert Scott, under whose influence he became imbued with the spirit of the Gothic revival, and he gradually became known as the chief exponent of 14th-century English Gothic, and the leading ecclesiastical architect in England. One of his first churches was St Michael and All Angels, Brighton (1855), and among his princ.i.p.al erections may be mentioned All Saints, Cambridge; Eton Mission church, Hackney Wick; Clumber church; Eccleston church; h.o.a.r Cross church; St Augustine's, Pendlebury; Holy Trinity, Kensington; Chapel Allerton, Leeds; St Faith's, Brentford; Queen's College chapel, Cambridge; Marlborough College chapel; and Burton church. His domestic work included the London School Board offices, the new buildings at Magdalen, Oxford, and Hewell Grange (for Lord Windsor). From 1872 he had for twenty years the partners.h.i.+p of Mr T. Garner, who worked with him. He also designed (with his pupil James Vaughan) the cathedral at Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C., U.S.A., and cathedrals at San Francisco and in Tasmania; and when Mr Gilbert Scott's design for his new Liverpool cathedral was successful in the compet.i.tion he collaborated with the young architect in preparing for its erection.

Bodley began contributing to the Royal Academy in 1854, and in 1881 was elected A.R.A., becoming R.A. in 1902. In addition to being a most learned master of architecture, he was a beautiful draughtsman, and a connoisseur in art; he published a volume of poems in 1899; and he was a designer of wall-papers and chintzes for Watts & Co., of Baker Street, London; in early life he had been in close alliance with the Pre-Raphaelites, and he did a great deal, like William Morris, to improve public taste in domestic decoration and furniture. He died on the 21st of October 1907, at Water Eaton, Oxford.

BODLEY, SIR THOMAS (1545-1613), English diplomatist and scholar, founder of the Bodleian library, Oxford, was born at Exeter on the 2nd of March 1545. During the reign of Queen Mary, his father, John Bodley, being obliged to leave the kingdom on account of his Protestant principles, went to live at Geneva. In that university, in which Calvin and Beza were then teaching divinity, young Bodley studied for a short time. On the accession of Queen Elizabeth he returned with his father to England, and soon after entered Magdalen College, Oxford. In 1563 he took his B.A. degree, and was admitted a fellow of Merton College. In 1565 he read a Greek lecture in hall, took his M.A. degree the year after, and read natural philosophy in the public schools. In 1569 he was proctor, and for some time after was deputy public orator. Quitting Oxford in 1576, he made the tour of Europe; shortly after his return he became gentleman-usher to Queen Elizabeth; and in 1587, apparently, he married Ann Ball, a widow lady of considerable fortune, the daughter of a Mr Carew of Bristol. In 1584 he entered parliament as member for Portsmouth, and represented St German's in 1586. In 1585 Bodley was entrusted with a mission to form a league between Frederick II. of Denmark and certain German princes to a.s.sist Henry of Navarre. He was next despatched on a secret mission to France; and in 1588 he was sent to the Hague as minister, a post which demanded great diplomatic skill, for it was in the Netherlands that the power of Spain had to be fought.

The essential difficulties of his mission were complicated by the intrigues of the queen's ministers at home, and Bodley repeatedly begged that he might be recalled. He was finally permitted to return to England in 1596, but finding his preferment obstructed by the jarring interests of Burleigh and Ess.e.x, he retired from public life. He was knighted on the 18th of April 1604. He is, however, remembered specially as the founder of the Bodleian at Oxford, practically the earliest public library in Europe (see LIBRARIES). He determined, he said, "to take his farewell of state employments and to set up his staff at the library door in Oxford." In 1598 his offer to restore the old library was accepted by the university. Bodley not only used his private fortune in his undertaking, but induced many of his friends to make valuable gifts of books. In 1611 he began its permanent endowment, and at his death in London on the 28th of January 1613, the greater part of his fortune was left to it. He was buried in the choir of Merton College chapel where a monument of black and white marble was erected to him.

Sir Thomas wrote his own life to the year 1609, which, with the first draft of the statutes drawn up for the library, and his letters to the librarian, Thomas James, was published by Thomas Hearne, under the t.i.tle of _Reliquiae Bodleianae, or Authentic Remains of Sir Thomas Bodley_ (London, 1703, 8vo).

BODMER, JOHANN JAKOB (1698-1783), Swiss-German author, was born at Greifensee, near Zurich, on the 19th of July 1698. After first studying theology and then trying a commercial career, he finally found his vocation in letters. In 1725 he was appointed professor of Helvetian history in Zurich, a chair which he held for half a century, and in 1735 became a member of the "Grosser Rat." He published (1721-1723), in conjunction with J.J. Breitinger (1701-1774) and several others, _Die Discourse der Mahlern_, a weekly journal after the model of the Spectator. Through his prose translation of Milton's Paradise Lost (1732) and his successful endeavours to make a knowledge of English literature accessible to Germany, he aroused the hostile criticism of Gottsched (_q.v_.) and his school, a struggle which ended in the complete discomfiture of the latter. His most important writings are the treatises _Von dem Wunderbaren in der Poesie_ (1740) and _Kritische Betrachtungen uber die poetischen Gemalde der Dichter_ (1741), in which he pleaded for the freedom of the imagination from the restriction imposed upon it by French pseudo-cla.s.sicism. Bodmer's epics _Die Sundfluth_ (1751) and _Noah_ (1751) are weak imitations of Klopstock's _Messias_, and his plays are entirely deficient in dramatic qualities.

He did valuable service to German literature by his editions of the Minnesingers and part of the _Nibelungenlied_. He died at Zurich on the 2nd of January 1783.

See T.W. Danzel, _Gottsched und seine Zeit_ (Leipzig, 1848); J.

Cruger, _J.C. Gottsched, Bodmer und Breitinger_ (Stuttgart, 1884); F.

Braitmaier, _Geschichte der poetischen Theorie und Kritik von den Diskursen der Maler bis auf Lessing_ (Leipzig, 1888); _Denkschrift zu Bodmers 200. Geburtstag_ (Zurich, 1900).

BODMIN, a market town and munic.i.p.al borough in the Bodmin parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, the county town, 30 m. W.N.W. of Plymouth, on branches of the Great Western and London & South-Western railways. Pop. (1901) 5353. It lies between two hills in a short valley opening westward upon that of the Camel, at the southern extremity of the high open Bodmin Moor. The large church of St Petrock, mainly Perpendicular, has earlier portions, and a late Norman font. East of it there is a ruined Decorated chapel of St Thomas of Canterbury, with a crypt. A tower of Tudor date, in the cemetery, marks the site of a chapel of the gild of the Holy Rood. Part of the buildings of a Franciscan friary, founded _c._ 1240, are incorporated in the market-house, and the gateway remains in an altered form. At Bodmin are a prison, with civil and naval departments, the county gaol and asylum, the headquarters of the constabulary, and those of the duke of Cornwall's Light Infantry. Cattle, sheep and horse fairs are held, and there is a considerable agricultural trade. The borough is under a mayor, four aldermen and twelve councillors. Area, 2797 acres.

Traces of Roman occupation have been found in the western part of the parish, belonging to the first century A.D. Possibly tin-mining was carried on here at that period. The grant of a charter by King Edred to the prior and canons of Bodmin (Bomine, Bodman, Bodmyn) in respect of lands in Devons.h.i.+re appears in an _inspeximus_ of 1252. To its ecclesiastical a.s.sociations it owed its importance at the time of the Domesday survey, when St Petrock held the manor of Bodmin, wherein were sixty-eight houses and one market. To successive priors, as mesne lords, it also owed its earliest munic.i.p.al privileges. King John's charter to the prior and convent, dated the 17th of July 1199, contained a clause (subsequently cancelled by Richard II.) by which burgesses were exempt from being impleaded, touching any tenements in their demesne, except before the king and his chief justice. Richard of Cornwall, king of the Romans, confirmed to the burgesses their gild merchant, Edward I. the pesage of tin, and Edward II. a market for tin and wool. Queen Elizabeth in 1563 const.i.tuted the town a free borough and the burgesses a body corporate, granting at the same time two fairs and a Sat.u.r.day market.

There are still held also three other fairs whose origin is uncertain.

An amended charter granted in 1594 remained in force until 1789, when the corporation became extinct owing to the diminution of the burgesses.

By virtue of a new charter of incorporation granted in 1798 and remodelled by the act of 1835, the corporation now consists of a mayor, four aldermen and twelve councillors. The first members for Bodmin were summoned in 1295. Retaining both its members in 1832, losing one in 1868 and the other in 1885, it has now become merged in the south-eastern division of the county. From 1715 to 1837 the a.s.sizes were generally held alternately at Launceston and Bodmin; since 1837 they have been held at Bodmin only. A court of probate has also been held at Bodmin since 1773. A festival known as "Bodmin Riding" was formerly celebrated here on the Sunday and Monday following St Thomas's day (July 7). It is thought by some to have been inst.i.tuted in 1177 to celebrate the recovery of the bones of St Petrock.

See _Victoria County History, Cornwall_; John Maclean, _Parochial and Family History of the Deanery of Trigg Minor, Cornwall_ (3 vols., 1873-1879).

BODo, a seaport on the north-western coast of Norway, in Nordland _amt_ (county), lat. 67 17' N. Pop. (1900) 4827. The rock-bound harbour admits large vessels, and there is a brisk trade in fish and eider-down.

The neighbouring country has many scenic attractions. Sixty miles inland (E.) rises the great ma.s.sif of Sulitelma on the Swedish frontier, with its copper mines, broad snow-fields and glaciers. The fjords of the district include the imposing Beierenfjord, the Saltenfjord, and the Skjerstadfjord, at the narrow mouths of which, between islands, a remarkable cataract (Saltstrom) is formed at the turn of the tide. On this fjord is Skjerstad, a large scattered village.

BODONI, GIAMBATTISTA (1740-1813), Italian printer, was born in 1740 at Saluzzo in Piedmont, where his father owned a printing establishment.

While yet a boy he began to engrave on wood. He at length went to Rome, and there became a compositor for the press of the Propaganda. He made himself acquainted with the Oriental languages, and thus was enabled to render essential service to the Propaganda press, by restoring and accurately distributing the types of several Oriental alphabets which had fallen into disorder. The infante Don Ferdinand, afterwards duke of Parma, having established, about 1760, a printing-house on the model of those in Paris, Madrid and Turin, Bodoni was placed at the head of this establishment, which he soon rendered the first of the kind in Europe.

The beauty of his typography, &c., leaves nothing further to be desired; but the intrinsic value of his editions is seldom equal to their outward splendour. His Homer, however, is a truly magnificent work; and, indeed, his Greek letters are faultless imitations of the best Greek ma.n.u.script. His editions of the Greek, Latin, Italian and French cla.s.sics are all highly prized for their typographical elegance, and some of them are not less remarkable for their accuracy. Bodoni died at Padua in 1813. In 1818 a magnificent work appeared in two volumes quarto, ent.i.tled _Manuale Tipografico_, containing specimens of the vast collection of types which had belonged to him.

See De Lama, _Vita del Cavaliere Giambattista Bodoni_ (1816).

BODY-s.n.a.t.c.hING, the secret disinterring of dead bodies in churchyards in order to sell them for the purpose of dissection. Those who practised body-s.n.a.t.c.hing were frequently called resurrectionists or resurrection-men. Previous to the pa.s.sing of the Anatomy Act 1832 (see ANATOMY: _History_), no licence was required in Great Britain for opening an anatomical school, and there was no provision for supplying subjects to students for anatomical purposes. Therefore, though body-s.n.a.t.c.hing was a misdemeanour at common law, punishable with fine and imprisonment, it was a sufficiently lucrative business to run the risk of detection. Body-s.n.a.t.c.hing became so prevalent that it was not unusual for the relatives and friends of a deceased person to watch the grave for some time after burial, lest it should be violated. Iron coffins, too, were frequently used for burial, or the graves were protected by a framework of iron bars called _mortsafes_, well-preserved examples of which may still be seen in Greyfriars' churchyard, Edinburgh.

For a detailed history of body-s.n.a.t.c.hing, see _The Diary of a Resurrectionist_, edited by J.B. Bailey (London, 1896), which also contains a full bibliography and the regulations in force in foreign countries for the supply of bodies for anatomical purposes.

BOECE (or BOYCE), HECTOR (c. 1465-c. 1536), Scottish historian, was born at Dundee about the year 1465, being descended of a family which for several generations had possessed the barony of Panbride in Forfars.h.i.+re. He received his early education at Dundee, and completed his course of study in the university of Paris, where he took the degree of B.D. He was appointed regent, or professor, of philosophy in the college of Montaigu; and there he was a contemporary of Erasmus, who in two epistles has spoken of him in the highest terms. When William Elphinstone, bishop of Aberdeen, was laying his plans for the foundation of the university of Aberdeen (King's College) he made Boece his chief adviser; and the latter was persuaded, after receipt of the papal bull erecting the university (1494), to be the first princ.i.p.al. He was in Aberdeen about 1500 when lectures began in the new buildings, and he appears to have been well received by the canons of the cathedral, several of whom he has commemorated as men of learning. It was a part of his duty as princ.i.p.al to read lectures on divinity.

The emoluments of his office were poor, but he also enjoyed the income of a canonry at Aberdeen and of the vicarage of Tullynessle. Under the date of 14th July 1527, we find a "grant to Maister Hector" of an annual pension of 50, to be paid by the sheriff of Aberdeen out of the king's casualties; and on the 26th of July 1529 was issued a "precept for a lettre to Mr Hector Boys, professor of theology, of a pension of 50 Scots yearly, until the king promote him to a benefice of 100 marks Scots of yearly value; the said pension to be paid him by the custumars of Aberdeen." In 1533 and 1534, one-half of his pension was, however, paid by the king's treasurer, and the other half by the comptroller; and as no payment subsequent to that of Whitsuntide 1534 has been traced in the treasurer's accounts, he is supposed to have obtained the benefice soon after that period. This benefice was the rectors.h.i.+p of Tyrie.

In 1528, soon after the publication of his history, Boece received the degree of D.D. at Aberdeen; and on this occasion the magistrates voted him a present of a tun of wine when the new wines should arrive, or, according to his option, the sum of 20 to purchase bonnets. He appears to have survived till the year 1536; for on the 22nd of November in that year, the king presented John Garden to the rectory of Tyrie, vacant by the death of "Mr Hector Boiss." He died at Aberdeen, and was buried before the high altar at King's College, beside the tomb of his patron Bishop Elphinstone.

His earliest publication, _Episcoporum Murthlacensium et Aberdonensium per Hectorem Boetium Vitae_, was printed at the press of Jodocus Badius (Paris, 1522). The notices of the early prelates are of little value, but the portion of the book in which he speaks of Bishop Elphinstone is of enduring merit. Here we likewise find an account of the foundation and const.i.tution of the college, together with some notices of its earliest members. His fame rests chiefly on his _History of Scotland_, published in 1527 under the t.i.tle _Scotorum Historiae a prima gentis origine c.u.m aliarum et rerum et gentium ill.u.s.tratione non vulgari_. This edition contains seventeen books. Another edition, containing the eighteenth book and a fragment of the nineteenth, was published by Ferrerius, who has added an appendix of thirty-five pages (Paris, 1574).