Encyclopaedia Britannica Volume 4, Slice 1 Part 36

A complete edition of his works was published at Leiden, under the t.i.tle of _Sam. Bochart Opera Omnia_ (1675, 2 vols. folio; 4th ed., 3 vols., 1712). An _Essay on the Life and Writings of Samuel Bochart_, by W.R. Whittingham, appeared in 1829.

BOCHOLT, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, near the frontier of Holland, 12 m. by rail north of Wesel. It is a seat of the cotton industry. Pop. (1900) 21,278.

BOCHUM, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, 11 m.

by rail west from Dortmund. Pop. (1905) 118,000. It is a centre of the iron and steel industries, producing princ.i.p.ally cast steel, cast iron, iron pipes, wire and wire ropes, and lamps, with tin and zinc works, coal-mining, factories for carpets, calcium carbide and paper-roofing, brickworks and breweries. The Bochumer Verein fur Bergbau (mining) und Gusstahl Fabrication (steel manufacture) is one of the princ.i.p.al trusts in this industry, founded in 1854. There are a mining and a metallurgical school.

BoCKH, PHILIPP AUGUST (1785-1867), German cla.s.sical scholar and antiquarian, was born in Karlsruhe on the 24th of November 1785. He was sent to the gymnasium of his native place, and remained there until he left for the university of Halle (1803), where he devoted himself to the study of theology. F.A. Wolf was then creating there an enthusiasm for cla.s.sical studies; Bockh fell under the spell, pa.s.sed from theology to philology, and became the greatest of all Wolf's scholars. In 1807 he established himself as privat-docent in the university of Heidelberg and was shortly afterwards appointed a professor extraordinarius, becoming professor two years later. In 1811 he removed to the new Berlin University, having been appointed professor of eloquence and cla.s.sical literature. He remained there till his death on the 3rd of August 1867.

He was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences of Berlin in 1814, and for a long time acted as its secretary. Many of the speeches contained in his _Kleine Schriften_ were delivered in this latter capacity.

Bockh worked out the ideas of Wolf in regard to philology, and ill.u.s.trated them by his practice. Discarding the old notion that philology consisted in a minute acquaintance with words and the exercise of the critical art, he regarded it as the entire knowledge of antiquity, historical and philosophical. He divides philology into five parts: first, an inquiry into public acts, with a knowledge of times and places, into civil inst.i.tutions, and also into law; second, an inquiry into private affairs; third, an exhibition of the religions and arts of the ancient nations; fourth, a history of all their moral and physical speculations and beliefs, and of their literatures; and fifth, a complete explanation of the language. These ideas in regard to philology Bockh set forth in a Latin oration delivered in 1822 (_Gesammelte kleine Schriften_, i.). In his speech at the opening of the congress of German philologists in 1850, he defined philology as the historical construction of the entire life--therefore, of all forms of culture and all the productions of a people in its practical and spiritual tendencies. He allows that such a work is too great for any one man; but the very infinity of subjects is the stimulus to the pursuit of truth, and men strive because they have not attained (_ib_. ii.). An account of Bockh's division of philology will be found in Freund's _Wie studirt man Philologie?_

From 1806 till his death Bockh's literary activity was unceasing. His princ.i.p.al works were the following:--(1) An edition of Pindar, the first volume of which (1811) contains the text of the Epinician odes; a treatise, _De Metris Pindari_, in three books; and _Notae Criticae_: the second (1819) contains the _Scholia_; and part ii. of volume ii. (1821) contains a Latin translation, a commentary, the fragments and indices.

It is still the most complete edition of Pindar that we have. But it was especially the treatise on the metres which placed Bockh in the first rank of scholars. This treatise forms an epoch in the treatment of the subject. In it the author threw aside all attempts to determine the Greek metres by mere subjective standards, pointing out at the same time the close connexion between the music and the poetry of the Greeks. He investigated minutely the nature of Greek music as far as it can be ascertained, as well as all the details regarding Greek musical instruments; and he explained the statements of the ancient Greek writers on rhythm. In this manner he laid the foundation for a scientific treatment of Greek metres. (2) _Die Staatshaushaltung der Athener_, 1817 (2nd ed. 1851, with a supplementary volume _Urkunden uber das Seewesen des attischen Staats_; 3rd ed. by Frankel, 1886), translated into English by Sir George Cornewall Lewis (1828) under the t.i.tle of _The Public Economy of Athens_. In it he investigated a subject of peculiar difficulty with profound learning. He ama.s.sed information from the whole range of Greek literature, carefully appraised the value of the information given, and shows throughout every portion of it rare critical ability and insight. A work of a similar kind was his _Metrologische Untersuchungen uber Gewichte, Munzfusse, und Ma.s.se des Alterthums_ (1838). (3) Bockh's third great work arose out of his second. In regard to the taxes and revenue of the Athenian state he derived a great deal of his most trustworthy information from inscriptions, many of which are given in his book. It was natural, therefore, that when the Berlin Academy of Sciences projected the plan of a _Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum_, Bockh should be chosen as the princ.i.p.al editor. This great work (1828-1877) is in four volumes, the third and fourth volumes being edited by J. Franz, E. Curtius, A.

Kirchhoff and H. Rohl.

Bockh's activity was continually digressing into widely different fields. He gained for himself a foremost position amongst the investigators of ancient chronology, and his name occupies a place by the side of those of Ideler and Mommsen. His princ.i.p.al works on this subject were: _Zur Geschichte der Mondcyclen der h.e.l.lenen_ (1855); _Epigraphisch-chronologische Studien_ (1856); _uber die vierjahrigen Sonnenkreise der Alten_ (1863), and several papers which he published in the _Transactions of the Berlin Academy_. Bockh also occupied himself with philosophy. One of his earliest papers was on the Platonic doctrine of the world, _De Platonica corporis mundani fabrica_ (1809), followed by _De Platonico Systemate Caelestium globorum et de vera Indole Astronomiae Philolaice_ (1810), to which may be added _Manetho und die Hundsternperiode_ (1845). In opposition to Otto Gruppe (1804-1876), he denied that Plato affirmed the diurnal rotation of the earth (_Untersuchungen uber das kosmische System des Platon_, 1852), and when in opposition to him Grote published his opinions on the subject (Plato and the Rotation of the Earth) Bockh was ready with his reply. Another of his earlier papers, and one frequently referred to, was _Commentatio Academica de simultate quae Platoni c.u.m Xenophonte intercessisse fertur_ (1811). Other philosophical writings were _Commentatio in Platonis qui vulgo fertur Minoem_ (1806), and _Philolaos' des Pythagoreers Lehren nebst den Bruchstucken_ (1819), in which he endeavoured to show the genuineness of the fragments.

Besides his edition of Pindar, Bockh published an edition of the Antigone of Sophocles (1843) with a poetical translation and essays. An early and important work on the Greek tragedians is his _Graecae Tragoediae Principum ... num ea quae supersunt et genuina omnia sint et forma primitiva servata_ (1808).

The smaller writings of Bockh began to be collected in his lifetime.

Three of the volumes were published before his death, and four after (_Gesammelte kleine Schriften_, 1858-1874). The first two consist of orations delivered in the university or academy of Berlin, or on public occasions. The third, fourth, fifth and sixth contain his contributions to the _Transactions of the Berlin Academy_, and the seventh contains his critiques. Bockh's lectures, delivered from 1809-1865, were published by Bratuschek under the t.i.tle of _Encyclopadie und Methodologie der philologischen Wissenschaften_ (2nd ed, Klussmann, 1886). His philological and scientific theories are set forth in Elze, _uber Philologie als System_ (1845), and Reichhardt, _Die Gliederung der Philologie entwickelt_ (1846). His correspondence with Ottfried Muller appeared at Leipzig in 1883. See Sachse, _Erinnerungen an August Bockh_ (1868); Stark, in the _Verhandlungen der Wurzburger Philologensammlung_ (1868); Max Hoffmann, _August Bockh_ (1901); and S. Reiter, in _Neue Jahrbucher fur das kla.s.sische Altertum_ (1902), p. 436.

BoCKLIN, ARNOLD (1827-1901), Swiss painter, was born at Basel on the 16th of October 1827. His father, Christian Frederick Bocklin (b. 1802), was descended from an old family of Schaffhausen, and engaged in the silk trade. His mother, Ursula Lippe, was a native of the same city. In 1846 he began his studies at the Dusseldorf academy under Schirmer, who recognized in him a student of exceptional promise, and sent him to Antwerp and Brussels, where he copied the works of Flemish and Dutch masters. Bocklin then went to Paris, worked at the Louvre, and painted several landscapes; his "Landscape and Ruin" reveals at the same time a strong feeling for nature and a dramatic conception of scenery. After serving his time in the army he set out for Rome in March 1850, and the sight of the Eternal City was a fresh stimulus to his mind. So, too, was the influence of Italian nature and that of the dead pagan world. At Rome he married (June 20, 1853) Angela Rosa Lorenza Pascucci. In 1856 he returned to Munich, and remained there four years. He then exhibited the "Great Park," one of his earliest works, in which he treated ancient mythology with the stamp of individuality, which was the basis of his reputation. Of this period, too, are his "Nymph and Satyr," "Heroic Landscape" (Diana Hunting), both of 1858, and "Sappho" (1859). These works, which were much discussed, together with Lenbach's recommendation, gained him his appointment as professor at the Weimar academy. He held the office for two years, painting the "Venus and Love," a "Portrait of Lenbach," and a "Saint Catherine." He was again at Rome from 1862 to 1866, and there gave his fancy and his taste for violent colour free play in his "Portrait of Mme Bocklin," now in the Basel gallery, in "An Anchorite in the Wilderness" (1863); a "Roman Tavern," and "Villa on the Sea-sh.o.r.e" (1864); this last, one of his best pictures. He returned to Basel in 1866 to finish his frescoes in the gallery, and to paint, besides several portraits, "The Magdalene with Christ" (1868); "Anacreon's Muse" (1869); and "A Castle and Warriors"

(1871). His "Portrait of Myself," with Death playing a violin (1873), was painted after his return again to Munich, where he exhibited his famous "Battle of the Centaurs" (in the Basel gallery); "Landscape with Moorish Hors.e.m.e.n" (in the Lucerne gallery); and "A Farm" (1875). From 1876 to 1885 Bocklin was working at Florence, and painted a "Pieta,"

"Ulysses and Calypso," "Prometheus," and the "Sacred Grove." From 1886 to 1892 he settled at Zurich. Of this period are the "Naiads at Play,"

"A Sea Idyll," and "War." After 1892 Bocklin resided at San Domenico, near Florence. An exhibition of his collected works was held at Basel from the 20th of September to the 24th of October 1897. He died on the 16th of January 1901.

His life has been written by Henri Mendelssohn. See also F. Hermann, _Gazette des Beaux Arts_ (Paris, 1893); Max Lehrs, _Arnold Bocklin, Ein Leitfaden zum Verstandniss seiner Kunst_ (Munich, 1897); W.

Ritter, _Arnold Bocklin_ (Gand, 1895); _Katalog der Bocklin Jubilaums Ausstellung_ (Basel, 1897). (H. Fr.)

BOCLAND, BOCKLAND or BOOKLAND (from A.S. _boc_, book), an original mode of tenure of land, also called charter-land or deed-land. Bocland was folk-land granted to individuals in private owners.h.i.+p by a doc.u.ment (charter or book) in writing, with the signatures of the king and witenagemot; at first it was rarely, if ever, held by laymen, except for religious purposes. Bocland to a certain extent resembled full owners.h.i.+p in the modern sense, in that the owner could grant it in his lifetime, in the same manner as he had received it, by _boc_ or book, and also dispose of it by will. (See also FOLKLAND.)

BOCSKAY, STEPHEN [ISTVaN] (1557-1606), prince of Transylvania, the most eminent member of the ancient Bocskay family, son of Gyorgy Bocskay and Krisztina Sulyok, was born at Kolozsvar, Hungary. As the chief councillor of Prince Zsigmond Bathory, he advised his sovereign to contract an alliance with the emperor instead of holding to the Turk, and rendered important diplomatic services on frequent missions to Prague and Vienna. The enmity towards him of the later Bathory princes of Transylvania, who confiscated his estates, drove him to seek protection at the imperial court (1599); but the attempts of the emperor Rudolph II. to deprive Hungary of her const.i.tution and the Protestants of their religious liberties speedily alienated Bocskay, especially after the terrible outrages inflicted on the Transylvanians by the imperial generals Basta and Belgiojoso from 1602 to 1604. Bocskay, to save the independence of Transylvania, a.s.sisted the Turks; and in 1605, as a reward for his part in driving Basta out of Transylvania, the Hungarian diet, a.s.sembled at Modgyes, elected him prince (1605), on which occasion the Ottoman sultan sent a special emba.s.sy to congratulate him and a splendid jewelled crown made in Persia. Bocskay refused the royal dignity, but made skilful use of the Turkish alliance. To save the Austrian provinces of Hungary, the archduke Matthias, setting aside his semi-lunatic imperial brother Rudolph, thereupon entered into negotiations with Bocskay, and ultimately the peace of Vienna was concluded (June 23, 1606), which guaranteed all the const.i.tutional and religious rights and privileges of the Hungarians both in Transylvania and imperial Hungary. Bocskay, at the same time, was acknowledged as prince of Transylvania by the Austrian court, and the right of the Transylvanians to elect their own independent princes in future was officially recognized. The fortress of Tokaj and the counties of Bereg, Szatmar and Ugocsa were at the same time ceded to Bocskay, with reversion to Austria if he should die childless. Simultaneously, at Zsitvatorok, a peace, confirmatory of the peace of Vienna, was concluded with the Turks. Bocskay survived this signal and unprecedented triumph only a few months. He is said to have been poisoned (December 29, 1606) by his chancellor, Mihaly Katay, who was hacked to bits by Bocskay's adherents in the market-place of Ka.s.sa.

See _Political Correspondence of Stephen Bocskay_ (Hung.), edited by Karoly Szabo (Budapest, 1882); Jeno Thury, _Stephen Bocskay's Rebellion_ (Hung.), Budapest, 1899. (R. N. B.)

BODE, JOHANN ELERT (1747-1826), German astronomer, was born at Hamburg on the 19th of January 1747. Devoted to astronomy from his earliest years, he eagerly observed the heavens at a garret window with a telescope made by himself, and at nineteen began his career with the publication of a short work on the solar eclipse of the 5th of August 1766. This was followed by an elementary treatise on astronomy ent.i.tled _Anleitung zur Kenntniss des gestirnten Himmels_ (1768, 10th ed. 1844), the success of which led to his being summoned to Berlin in 1772 for the purpose of computing ephemerides on an improved plan. There resulted the foundation by him, in 1774, of the well-known _Astronomisches Jahrbuch_, 51 yearly volumes of which he compiled and issued. He became director of the Berlin observatory in 1786, withdrew from official life in 1825, and died at Berlin on the 23rd of November 1826. His works were highly effective in diffusing throughout Germany a taste for astronomy. Besides those already mentioned he wrote:--_Sammlung astronomischer Tafeln_ (3 vols., 1776); _Erlauterung der Sternkunde_ (1776, 3rd ed. 1808); _Uranographia_ (1801), a collection of 20 star-maps accompanied by a catalogue of 17,240 stars and nebulae. In one of his numerous incidental essays he propounded, in 1776, a theory of the solar const.i.tution similar to that developed in 1795 by Sir William Herschel. He gave currency, moreover, to the empirical rule known as "Bode's Law," which was actually announced by Johann Daniel t.i.tius of Wittenberg in 1772. It is expressed by the statement that the proportionate distances of the several planets from the sun may be represented by adding 4 to each term of the series; 0, 3, 6, 12, 24, &c. The irregularity will be noticed of the first term, which should be 1 instead of 0. (See SOLAR SYSTEM.)

See J.F. Encke, _Berlin Abhandlungen_ (1827), p. xi.; H.C. Schumacher.

_Astr. Nach._ v. 255, 367 (1827); Poggendorff, _Biog. literarisches Handworterbuch; Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, iii. 1.

BODEL, JEHAN (died _c._ 1210), French _trouvere_, was born at Arras in the second half of the 12th century. Very little is known of his life, but in 1205 he was about to start for the crusade when he was attacked by leprosy. In a touching poem called _Le Conge_ (pr. by Meon in _Recueil de fabliaux et contes_, vol. i.), he bade farewell to his friends and patrons, and begged for a nomination to a leper hospital. He wrote _Le Jeu de Saint Nicolas_, one of the earliest miracle plays preserved in French (printed in Monmerque and Michel's _Theatre francais du moyen age_, 1839, and for the _Soc. des bibliophiles francais_, 1831); the _Chanson des Saisnes_ (ed. F. Michel 1839), four _pastourelles_ (printed in K. Bartsch's _Altfranz. Romanzen und Pastourellen_, Leipzig, 1870); and probably, the eight _fabliaux_ attributed to an unknown Jean Bedel. The legend of Saint Nicholas had already formed the subject of the Latin _Ludus Sancti Nicholai_ of Hilarius. Bodel placed the scene partly on a field of battle in Africa, where the crusaders perish in a hopeless struggle, and partly in a tavern. The piece, loosely connected by the miracle of Saint Nicholas narrated in the prologue, ends with a wholesale conversion of the African king and his subjects. The dialogue in the tavern scenes is written in thieves' slang, and is very obscure. The _Chanson des Saisnes_, Bodel's authors.h.i.+p of which has been called in question, is a _chanson de geste_ belonging to the period of decadence, and is really a _roman d'aventures_ based on earlier legends belonging to the Charlemagne cycle. It relates the wars of Charlemagne against the Saxons under Guiteclin de Sa.s.soigne (Witikind or Widukind), with the second revolt of the Saxons and their final submission and conversion. Jehan Bodel makes no allusion to Ogier the Dane and many other personages of the Charlemagne cycle, but he mentions the defeat of Roland at Roncevaux. The romance is based on historical fact, but is overlaid with romantic detail. It really embraces three distinct legends--those of the wars against the Saxons, of Charlemagne's rebellious barons, and of Baudouim and Sebille. The earlier French poems on the subject are lost, but the substance of them is preserved in the Scandinavian versions of the Charlemagne cycle (supposed to have been derived from English sources) known as the _Karlamagnussaga_ (ed. Unger, Christiania, 1860) and _Keiser Karl Magnus Kronike_ (Romantisk Digtnung, ed. C.J. Brandt, Copenhagen, 1877).

See also the article on Jehan Bodel by Paulin Paris in _Hist. litt, de la France_, xx. pp. 605-638; Gaston Paris, _Histoire poetique de Charlemagne_ (1865); Leon Gautier, _Les epopees francaises_ (revised edition, vol. iii. pp. 650-684), where there is a full a.n.a.lysis of the _Chanson des Saisnes_ and a bibliography; H. Meyer, in _Ausgaben und Abhandlungen aus ... der romanischen Philologie_ (Marburg, 1883), pp.

1-76, where its relation to the rest of the Charlemagne cycle is discussed.

BODENBACH (Czech _Podmokly_), a town of Bohemia, Austria, 83 m. N.N.E.

of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 10,782, almost exclusively German. It is situated on the left bank of the Elbe opposite Tetschen, and is an important railway junction, containing also an Austrian and a Saxon custom-house. Bodenbach, which in the middle of the 19th century had only a few hundred inhabitants, has become a very important industrial centre. Its princ.i.p.al manufactures include cotton and woollen goods, earthenware and crockery, chemicals, chicory, chocolate, sweetmeats and preserves, and beer. It has also a very active transit trade.

BODENSTEDT, FRIEDRICH MARTIN VON (1819-1892), German author, was born at Peine, in Hanover, on the 22nd of April 1819. He studied in Gottingen, Munich and Berlin. His career was determined by his engagement in 1841 as tutor in the family of Prince Gallitzin at Moscow, where he gained a thorough knowledge of Russian. This led to his appointment in 1844 as the head of a public school at Tiflis, in Transcaucasia. He took the opportunity of his proximity to Persia to study Persian literature, and in 1851 published a volume of original poetry in oriental guise under the fanciful t.i.tle, _Die Lieder des Mirza Schaffy_ (English trans. by E.

d'Esterre, 1880). The success of this work can only be compared with that of Edward FitzGerald's _Omar Khayyam_, produced in somewhat similar circ.u.mstances, but differed from it in being immediate. It has gone through 160 editions in Germany, and has been translated into almost all literary languages. Nor is this celebrity undeserved, for although Bodenstedt does not attain the poetical elevation of FitzGerald, his view of life is wider, more cheerful and more sane, while the execution is a model of grace. On his return from the East, Bodenstedt engaged for a while in journalism, married the daughter of a Hessian officer (Matilde, the _Edlitam_ of his poems), and was in 1854 appointed professor of Slavonic at Munich. The rich stores of knowledge which Bodenstedt brought back from the East were turned to account in two important books, _Die Volker des Kaukasus und ihre Freiheits-Kampfe gegen die Russen_ (1848), and _Tausend und ein Tag im Orient_ (1850).

For some time Bodenstedt continued to devote himself to Slavonic subjects, producing translations of Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgweniev, and of the poets of the Ukraines, and writing a tragedy on the false Demetrius, and an epic, _Ada die Lesghierin_, on a Circa.s.sian theme.

Finding, probably, this vein exhausted, he exchanged his professors.h.i.+p in 1858 for one of Early English literature, and published (1858-1860) a valuable work on the English dramatists contemporary with Shakespeare, with copious translations. In 1862 he produced a standard translation of Shakespeare's sonnets, and between 1866 and 1872 published a complete version of the plays, with the help of many coadjutors. In 1867 he undertook the direction of the court theatre at Meiningen, and was enn.o.bled by the duke. After 1873 he lived successively at Altona, Berlin and Wiesbaden, where he died on the 19th of April 1892. His later works consist of an autobiography (1888), successful translations from Hafiz and Omar Khayyam, and lyrics and dramas which added little to his reputation.

An edition of his collected works in 12 vols. was published at Berlin (1866-1869), and his _Erzahlungen und Romane_ at Jena (1871-1872). For further biographical details, see Bodenstedt's _Erinnerungen aus meinem Leben_ (2 vols., Berlin, 1888-1890); and G. Schenck, _Friedrich von Bodenstedt. Ein Dichterleben in seinen Briefen_ (Berlin, 1893).

BODHI VAMSA, a prose poem in elaborate Sanskritized Pali, composed by Upatissa in the reign of Mahinda IV. of Ceylon about A.D. 980. It is an adaptation of a previously existing work in Sinhalese on the same subject, and describes the bringing of a branch of the celebrated Bo or Bodhi tree (i.e. Wisdom Tree, under which the Buddha had attained wisdom) to Ceylon in the 3rd century B.C. The Bodhi Vamsa quotes verses from the Mahavamsa, but draws a great deal of its material from other sources; and it has occasionally preserved details of the older tradition not found in any other sources known to us.

Edition in Pali for the Pali Text Society by S. Arthur Strong (London, 1891).

BODICHON, BARBARA LEIGH SMITH (1827-1891), English educationalist, was born at Watlington, Norfolk, on the 8th of April 1827, the daughter of Benjamin Smith (1783-1860), long M.P. for Norwich. She early showed a force of character and catholicity of sympathy that later won her a prominent place among philanthropists and social workers. In 1857 she married an eminent French physician, Dr Eugene Bodichon, and, although wintering many years in Algiers, continued to lead the movements she had initiated in behalf of Englishwomen. In 1869 she published her _Brief Summary of the Laws of England concerning Women_, which had a useful effect in helping forward the pa.s.sage of the Married Women's Property Act. In 1866, co-operating with Miss Emily Davies, she matured a scheme for the extension of university education to women, and the first small experiment at Hitchin developed into Girton College, to which Mme Bodichon gave liberally of her time and money. With all her public interests she found time for society and her favourite art of painting.

She studied under William H. Hunt, and her water-colours, exhibited at the Salon, the Academy and elsewhere, showed great originality and talent, and were admired by Corot and Daubigny. Her London salon included many of the literary and artistic celebrities of her day; she was George Eliot's most intimate friend, and, according to her, the first to recognize the authors.h.i.+p of _Adam Bede_. Her personal appearance is said to be described in that of Romola. Mme Bodichon died at Robertsbridge, Suss.e.x, on the 11th of June 1891.