The Foundations of Science: Science and Hypothesis, The Value of Science Science and Method Part 65

If therefore the absolute velocity of the earth were straight and uniform, we should never have suspected the phenomenon of aberration; but it is variable; it is composed of two parts: the velocity of the solar system, which is straight and uniform; the velocity of the earth with reference to the sun, which is variable. If the velocity of the solar system, that is to say if the constant part existed alone, the observed direction would be invariable. This position that one would thus observe is called the _mean_ apparent position of the star.

Taking account now at the same time of the two parts of the velocity of the earth, we shall have the actual apparent position, which describes a little ellipse around the mean apparent position, and it is this ellipse that we observe.

Neglecting very small quant.i.ties, we shall see that the dimensions of this ellipse depend only upon the ratio of the velocity of the earth with reference to the sun to the velocity of light, so that the relative velocity of the earth with regard to the sun has alone come in.

But wait! This result is not exact, it is only approximate; let us push the approximation a little farther. The dimensions of the ellipse will depend then upon the absolute velocity of the earth. Let us compare the major axes of the ellipse for the different stars: we shall have, theoretically at least, the means of determining this absolute velocity.

That would be perhaps less shocking than it at first seems; it is a question, in fact, not of the velocity with reference to an absolute void, but of the velocity with regard to the ether, which is taken _by definition_ as being absolutely at rest.

Besides, this method is purely theoretical. In fact, the aberration is very small; the possible variations of the ellipse of aberration are much smaller yet, and, if we consider the aberration as of the first order, they should therefore be regarded as of the second order: about a millionth of a second; they are absolutely inappreciable for our instruments. We shall finally see, further on, why the preceding theory should be rejected, and why we could not determine this absolute velocity even if our instruments were ten thousand times more precise!

One might imagine some other means, and in fact, so one has. The velocity of light is not the same in water as in air; could we not compare the two apparent positions of a star seen through a telescope first full of air, then full of water? The results have been negative; the apparent laws of reflection and refraction are not altered by the motion of the earth. This phenomenon is capable of two explanations:

1 It might be supposed that the ether is not at rest, but that it is carried along by the body in motion. It would then not be astonis.h.i.+ng that the phenomena of refraction are not altered by the motion of the earth, since all, prisms, telescopes and ether, are carried along together in the same translation. As to the aberration itself, it would be explained by a sort of refraction happening at the surface of separation of the ether at rest in the interstellar s.p.a.ces and the ether carried along by the motion of the earth. It is upon this hypothesis (bodily carrying along of the ether) that is founded the _theory of Hertz_ on the electrodynamics of moving bodies.

2 Fresnel, on the contrary, supposes that the ether is at absolute rest in the void, at rest almost absolute in the air, whatever be the velocity of this air, and that it is partially carried along by refractive media. Lorentz has given to this theory a more satisfactory form. For him, the ether is at rest, only the electrons are in motion; in the void, where it is only a question of the ether, in the air, where this is almost the case, the carrying along is null or almost null; in refractive media, where perturbation is produced at the same time by vibrations of the ether and those of electrons put in swing by the agitation of the ether, the undulations are _partially_ carried along.

To decide between the two hypotheses, we have Fizeau's experiment, comparing by measurements of the fringes of interference, the velocity of light in air at rest or in motion. These experiments have confirmed Fresnel's hypothesis of partial carrying along. They have been repeated with the same result by Michelson. _The theory of Hertz must therefore be rejected._

II

_The Principle of Relativity_

But if the ether is not carried along by the motion of the earth, is it possible to show, by means of optical phenomena, the absolute velocity of the earth, or rather its velocity with respect to the unmoving ether?

Experiment has answered negatively, and yet the experimental procedures have been varied in all possible ways. Whatever be the means employed there will never be disclosed anything but relative velocities; I mean the velocities of certain material bodies with reference to other material bodies. In fact, if the source of light and the apparatus of observation are on the earth and partic.i.p.ate in its motion, the experimental results have always been the same, whatever be the orientation of the apparatus with reference to the orbital motion of the earth. If astronomic aberration happens, it is because the source, a star, is in motion with reference to the observer.

The hypotheses so far made perfectly account for this general result, _if we neglect very small quant.i.ties of the order of the square of the aberration_. The explanation rests upon the notion of _local time_, introduced by Lorentz, which I shall try to make clear. Suppose two observers, placed one at _A_, the other at _B_, and wis.h.i.+ng to set their watches by means of optical signals. They agree that _B_ shall send a signal to _A_ when his watch marks an hour determined upon, and _A_ is to put his watch to that hour the moment he sees the signal. If this alone were done, there would be a systematic error, because as the light takes a certain time _t_ to go from _B_ to _A_, _A_'s watch would be behind _B_'s the time _t_. This error is easily corrected. It suffices to cross the signals. _A_ in turn must signal _B_, and, after this new adjustment, _B_'s watch will be behind _A_'s the time _t_. Then it will be sufficient to take the arithmetic mean of the two adjustments.

But this way of doing supposes that light takes the same time to go from _A_ to _B_ as to return from _B_ to _A_. That is true if the observers are motionless; it is no longer so if they are carried along in a common translation, since then _A_, for example, will go to meet the light coming from _B_, while _B_ will flee before the light coming from _A_.

If therefore the observers are borne along in a common translation and if they do not suspect it, their adjustment will be defective; their watches will not indicate the same time; each will show the _local time_ belonging to the point where it is.

The two observers will have no way of perceiving this, if the unmoving ether can transmit to them only luminous signals all of the same velocity, and if the other signals they might send are transmitted by media carried along with them in their translation. The phenomenon each observes will be too soon or too late; it would be seen at the same instant only if the translation did not exist; but as it will be observed with a watch that is wrong, this will not be perceived and the appearances will not be altered.

It results from this that the compensation is easy to explain so long as we neglect the square of the aberration, and for a long time the experiments were not sufficiently precise to warrant taking account of it. But the day came when Michelson imagined a much more delicate procedure: he made rays interfere which had traversed different courses, after being reflected by mirrors; each of the paths approximating a meter and the fringes of interference permitting the recognition of a fraction of a thousandth of a millimeter, the square of the aberration could no longer be neglected, and _yet the results were still negative_.

Therefore the theory required to be completed, and it has been by the _Lorentz-Fitzgerald hypothesis_.

These two physicists suppose that all bodies carried along in a translation undergo a contraction in the sense of this translation, while their dimensions perpendicular to this translation remain unchanged. _This contraction is the same for all bodies_; moreover, it is very slight, about one two-hundred-millionth for a velocity such as that of the earth. Furthermore our measuring instruments could not disclose it, even if they were much more precise; our measuring rods in fact undergo the same contraction as the objects to be measured. If the meter exactly fits when applied to a body, if we point the body and consequently the meter in the sense of the motion of the earth, it will not cease to exactly fit in another orientation, and that although the body and the meter have changed in length as well as orientation, and precisely because the change is the same for one as for the other. But it is quite different if we measure a length, not now with a meter, but by the time taken by light to pa.s.s along it, and this is just what Michelson has done.

A body, spherical when at rest, will take thus the form of a flattened ellipsoid of revolution when in motion; but the observer will always think it spherical, since he himself has undergone an a.n.a.logous deformation, as also all the objects serving as points of reference. On the contrary, the surfaces of the waves of light, remaining rigorously spherical, will seem to him elongated ellipsoids.

What happens then? Suppose an observer and a source of light carried along together in the translation: the wave surfaces emanating from the source will be spheres having as centers the successive positions of the source; the distance from this center to the actual position of the source will be proportional to the time elapsed after the emission, that is to say to the radius of the sphere. All these spheres are therefore h.o.m.othetic one to the other, with relation to the actual position _S_ of the source. But, for our observer, because of the contraction, all these spheres will seem elongated ellipsoids, and all these ellipsoids will moreover be h.o.m.othetic, with reference to the point _S_; the excentricity of all these ellipsoids is the same and depends solely upon the velocity of the earth. _We shall so select the law of contraction that the point S may be at the focus of the meridian section of the ellipsoid._

This time the compensation is _rigorous_, and this it is which explains Michelson's experiment.

I have said above that, according to the ordinary theories, observations of the astronomic aberration would give us the absolute velocity of the earth, if our instruments were a thousand times more precise. I must modify this statement. Yes, the observed angles would be modified by the effect of this absolute velocity, but the graduated circles we use to measure the angles would be deformed by the translation: they would become ellipses; thence would result an error in regard to the angle measured, and _this second error would exactly compensate the first_.

This Lorentz-Fitzgerald hypothesis seems at first very extraordinary; all we can say for the moment, in its favor, is that it is only the immediate translation of Michelson's experimental result, if we _define_ lengths by the time taken by light to run along them.

However that may be, it is impossible to escape the impression that the principle of relativity is a general law of nature, that one will never be able by any imaginable means to show any but relative velocities, and I mean by that not only the velocities of bodies with reference to the ether, but the velocities of bodies with regard to one another. Too many different experiments have given concordant results for us not to feel tempted to attribute to this principle of relativity a value comparable to that, for example, of the principle of equivalence. In any case, it is proper to see to what consequences this way of looking at things would lead us and then to submit these consequences to the control of experiment.

III

_The Principle of Reaction_

Let us see what the principle of the equality of action and reaction becomes in the theory of Lorentz. Consider an electron _A_ which for any cause begins to move; it produces a perturbation in the ether; at the end of a certain time, this perturbation reaches another electron _B_, which will be disturbed from its position of equilibrium. In these conditions there can not be equality between action and reaction, at least if we do not consider the ether, but only the electrons, _which alone are observable_, since our matter is made of electrons.

In fact it is the electron _A_ which has disturbed the electron _B_; even in case the electron _B_ should react upon _A_, this reaction could be equal to the action, but in no case simultaneous, since the electron _B_ can begin to move only after a certain time, necessary for the propagation. Submitting the problem to a more exact calculation, we reach the following result: Suppose a Hertz discharger placed at the focus of a parabolic mirror to which it is mechanically attached; this discharger emits electromagnetic waves, and the mirror reflects all these waves in the same direction; the discharger therefore will radiate energy in a determinate direction. Well, the calculation shows that _the discharger recoils_ like a cannon which has shot out a projectile. In the case of the cannon, the recoil is the natural result of the equality of action and reaction. The cannon recoils because the projectile upon which it has acted reacts upon it. But here it is no longer the same.

What has been sent out is no longer a material projectile: it is energy, and energy has no ma.s.s: it has no counterpart. And, in place of a discharger, we could have considered just simply a lamp with a reflector concentrating its rays in a single direction.

It is true that, if the energy sent out from the discharger or from the lamp meets a material object, this object receives a mechanical push as if it had been hit by a real projectile, and this push will be equal to the recoil of the discharger and of the lamp, if no energy has been lost on the way and if the object absorbs the whole of the energy. Therefore one is tempted to say that there still is compensation between the action and the reaction. But this compensation, even should it be complete, is always belated. It never happens if the light, after leaving its source, wanders through interstellar s.p.a.ces without ever meeting a material body; it is incomplete, if the body it strikes is not perfectly absorbent.

Are these mechanical actions too small to be measured, or are they accessible to experiment? These actions are nothing other than those due to the _Maxwell-Bartholi_ pressures; Maxwell had predicted these pressures from calculations relative to electrostatics and magnetism; Bartholi reached the same result by thermodynamic considerations.

This is how the _tails of comets_ are explained. Little particles detach themselves from the nucleus of the comet; they are struck by the light of the sun, which pushes them back as would a rain of projectiles coming from the sun. The ma.s.s of these particles is so little that this repulsion sweeps it away against the Newtonian attraction; so in moving away from the sun they form the tails.

The direct experimental verification was not easy to obtain. The first endeavor led to the construction of the _radiometer_. But this instrument _turns backward_, in the sense opposite to the theoretic sense, and the explanation of its rotation, since discovered, is wholly different. At last success came, by making the vacuum more complete, on the one hand, and on the other by not blackening one of the faces of the paddles and directing a pencil of luminous rays upon one of the faces.

The radiometric effects and the other disturbing causes are eliminated by a series of pains-taking precautions, and one obtains a deviation which is very minute, but which is, it would seem, in conformity with the theory.

The same effects of the Maxwell-Bartholi pressure are forecast likewise by the theory of Hertz of which we have before spoken, and by that of Lorentz. But there is a difference. Suppose that the energy, under the form of light, for example, proceeds from a luminous source to any body through a transparent medium. The Maxwell-Bartholi pressure will act, not alone upon the source at the departure, and on the body lit up at the arrival, but upon the matter of the transparent medium which it traverses. At the moment when the luminous wave reaches a new region of this medium, this pressure will push forward the matter there distributed and will put it back when the wave leaves this region. So that the recoil of the source has for counterpart the forward movement of the transparent matter which is in contact with this source; a little later, the recoil of this same matter has for counterpart the forward movement of the transparent matter which lies a little further on, and so on.

Only, is the compensation perfect? Is the action of the Maxwell-Bartholi pressure upon the matter of the transparent medium equal to its reaction upon the source, and that whatever be this matter? Or is this action by so much the less as the medium is less refractive and more rarefied, becoming null in the void?

If we admit the theory of Hertz, who regards matter as mechanically bound to the ether, so that the ether may be entirely carried along by matter, it would be necessary to answer yes to the first question and no to the second.

There would then be perfect compensation, as required by the principle of the equality of action and reaction, even in the least refractive media, even in the air, even in the interplanetary void, where it would suffice to suppose a residue of matter, however subtile. If on the contrary we admit the theory of Lorentz, the compensation, always imperfect, is insensible in the air and becomes null in the void.

But we have seen above that Fizeau's experiment does not permit of our retaining the theory of Hertz; it is necessary therefore to adopt the theory of Lorentz, and consequently _to renounce the principle of reaction_.

IV

_Consequences of the Principle of Relativity_

We have seen above the reasons which impel us to regard the principle of relativity as a general law of nature. Let us see to what consequences this principle would lead, should it be regarded as finally demonstrated.

First, it obliges us to generalize the hypothesis of Lorentz and Fitzgerald on the contraction of all bodies in the sense of the translation. In particular, we must extend this hypothesis to the electrons themselves. Abraham considered these electrons as spherical and indeformable; it will be necessary for us to admit that these electrons, spherical when in repose, undergo the Lorentz contraction when in motion and take then the form of flattened ellipsoids.

This deformation of the electrons will influence their mechanical properties. In fact I have said that the displacement of these charged electrons is a veritable current of convection and that their apparent inertia is due to the self-induction of this current: exclusively as concerns the negative electrons; exclusively or not, we do not yet know, for the positive electrons. Well, the deformation of the electrons, a deformation which depends upon their velocity, will modify the distribution of the electricity upon their surface, consequently the intensity of the convection current they produce, consequently the laws according to which the self-induction of this current will vary as a function of the velocity.

At this price, the compensation will be perfect and will conform to the requirements of the principle of relativity, but only upon two conditions:

1 That the positive electrons have no real ma.s.s, but only a fict.i.tious electromagnetic ma.s.s; or at least that their real ma.s.s, if it exists, is not constant and varies with the velocity according to the same laws as their fict.i.tious ma.s.s;

2 That all forces are of electromagnetic origin, or at least that they vary with the velocity according to the same laws as the forces of electromagnetic origin.

It still is Lorentz who has made this remarkable synthesis; stop a moment and see what follows therefrom. First, there is no more matter, since the positive electrons no longer have real ma.s.s, or at least no constant real ma.s.s. The present principles of our mechanics, founded upon the constancy of ma.s.s, must therefore be modified. Again, an electromagnetic explanation must be sought of all the known forces, in particular of gravitation, or at least the law of gravitation must be so modified that this force is altered by velocity in the same way as the electromagnetic forces. We shall return to this point.