Letters on Astronomy Part 22

In the seventh century before the Christian era, astronomy began to be cultivated in Greece; and there arose successively three celebrated astronomical schools,--the school of Miletus, the school of Crotona, and the school of Alexandria. The first was established by Thales, six hundred and forty years before Christ; the second, by Pythagoras, one hundred and forty years afterwards; and the third, by the Ptolemies of Egypt, about three hundred years before the Christian era. As Egypt and Babylon were renowned among the most ancient nations, for their knowledge of the sciences, long before they were cultivated in Greece, it was the practice of the Greeks, when they aspired to the character of philosophers and sages, to resort to these countries to imbibe wisdom at its fountains. Thales, after extensive travels in Crete and Egypt, returned to his native place, Miletus, a town on the coast of Asia Minor, where he established the first school of astronomy in Greece.

Although the minds of these ancient astronomers were beclouded with much error, yet Thales taught a few truths which do honor to his sagacity. He held that the stars are formed of fire; that the moon receives her light from the sun, and is invisible at her conjunctions because she is hid in the sun's rays. He taught the sphericity of the earth, but adopted the common error of placing it in the centre of the world. He introduced the division of the sphere into five zones, and taught the obliquity of the ecliptic. He was acquainted with the Saros, or sacred period of the Chaldeans, (see page 192,) and employed it in calculating eclipses. It was Thales that predicted the famous eclipse of the sun which terminated the war between the Lydians and the Medes, as mentioned in a former Letter. Indeed, Thales is universally regarded as a bright but solitary star, glimmering through mists on the distant horizon.

To Thales succeeded, in the school of Miletus, two other astronomers of much celebrity, Anaximander and Anaxagoras. Among many absurd things held by Anaximander, he first taught the sublime doctrine that the planets are inhabited, and that the stars are suns of other systems.

Anaxagoras attempted to explain all the secrets of the skies by natural causes. His reasonings, indeed, were alloyed with many absurd notions; but still he alone, among the astronomers, maintained the existence of one G.o.d. His doctrines alarmed his countrymen, by their audacity and impiety to their G.o.ds, whose prerogatives he was thought to invade; and, to deprecate their wrath, sentence of death was p.r.o.nounced on the philosopher and all his family,--a sentence which was commuted only for the sad alternative of perpetual banishment. The very genius of the heathen mythology was at war with the truth. False in itself, it trained the mind to the love of what was false in the interpretation of nature; it arrayed itself against the simplicity of truth, and persecuted and put to death its most ardent votaries. The religion of the Bible, on the other hand, lends all its aid to truth in nature as well as in morals and religion. In its very genius it inculcates and inspires the love of truth; it suggests, by its a.n.a.logies, the existence of established laws in the system of the world; and holds out the moon and the stars, which the Creator has ordained, as fit objects to give us exalted views of his glory and wisdom.

Pythagoras was the founder of the celebrated school of Crotona. He was a native of Samos, an island in the aegean sea, and flourished about five hundred years before the Christian era. After travelling more than thirty years in Egypt and Chaldea, and spending several years more at Sparta, to learn the laws and inst.i.tutions of Lycurgus, he returned to his native island to dispense the riches he had acquired to his countrymen. But they, probably fearful of incurring the displeasure of the G.o.ds by the freedom with which he inquired into the secrets of the skies, gave him so unwelcome a reception, that he retired from them, in disgust, and established his school at Crotona, on the southeastern coast of Italy. Hither, as to an oracle, the fame of his wisdom attracted hundreds of admiring pupils, whom he instructed in every species of knowledge. From the visionary notions which are generally understood to have been entertained on the subject of astronomy, by the ancients, we are apt to imagine that they knew less than they actually did of the truths of this science. But Pythagoras was acquainted with many important facts in astronomy, and entertained many opinions respecting the system of the world, which are now held to be true. Among other things well known to Pythagoras, either derived from his own investigations, or received from his predecessors, were the following; and we may note them as a synopsis of the state of astronomical knowledge at that age of the world. First, the princ.i.p.al _constellations_. These had begun to be formed in the earliest ages of the world. Several of them, bearing the same name as at present, are mentioned in the writings of Hesiod and Homer; and the "sweet influences of the Pleiades," and the "bands of Orion," are beautifully alluded to in the book of Job. Secondly, _eclipses_. Pythagoras knew both the causes of eclipses and how to predict them; not, indeed, in the accurate manner now practised, but by means of the Saros. Thirdly, Pythagoras had divined the true _system of the world_, holding that the sun, and not the earth, (as was generally held by the ancients, even for many ages after Pythagoras,) is the centre around which all the planets revolve; and that the stars are so many suns, each the centre of a system like our own. Among lesser things, he knew that the earth is round; that its surface is naturally divided into five zones; and that the ecliptic is inclined to the equator. He also held that the earth revolves daily on its axis, and yearly around the sun; that the galaxy is an a.s.semblage of small stars; and that it is the same luminary, namely, Venus, that const.i.tutes both the morning and evening star; whereas all the ancients before him had supposed that each was a separate planet, and accordingly the morning star was called Lucifer, and the evening star, Hesperus. He held, also, that the planets were inhabited, and even went so far as to calculate the size of some of the animals in the moon. Pythagoras was also so great an enthusiast in music, that he not only a.s.signed to it a conspicuous place in his system of education, but even supposed that the heavenly bodies themselves were arranged at distances corresponding to the intervals of the diatonic scale, and imagined them to pursue their sublime march to notes created by their own harmonious movements, called the 'music of the spheres;' but he maintained that this celestial concert, though loud and grand, is not audible to the feeble organs of man, but only to the G.o.ds. With few exceptions, however, the opinions of Pythagoras on the system of the world were founded in truth. Yet they were rejected by Aristotle, and by most succeeding astronomers, down to the time of Copernicus; and in their place was subst.i.tuted the doctrine of _crystalline spheres_, first taught by Eudoxus, who lived about three hundred and seventy years before Christ. According to this system, the heavenly bodies are set like gems in hollow solid orbs, composed of crystal so transparent, that no anterior orb obstructs in the least the view of any of the orbs that lie behind it. The sun and the planets have each its separate orb; but the fixed stars are all set in the same grand orb; and beyond this is another still, the _primum mobile_, which revolves daily, from east to west, and carries along with it all the other orbs. Above the whole spreads the _grand empyrean_, or third heavens, the abode of perpetual serenity.

To account for the planetary motions, it was supposed that each of the planetary orbs, as well as that of the sun, has a motion of its own, eastward, while it partakes of the common diurnal motion of the starry sphere. Aristotle taught that these motions are effected by a tutelary genius of each planet, residing in it, and directing its motions, as the mind of man directs his movements.

Two hundred years after Pythagoras, arose the famous school of Alexandria, under the Ptolemies. These were a succession of Egyptian kings, and are not to be confounded with Ptolemy, the astronomer. By the munificent patronage of this enlightened family, for the s.p.a.ce of three hundred years, beginning at the death of Alexander the Great, from whom the eldest of the Ptolemies had received his kingdom, the school of Alexandria concentrated in its vast library and princely halls, erected for the accommodation of the philosophers, nearly all the science and learning of the world. In wandering over the immense territories of ignorance and barbarism which covered, at that time, almost the entire face of the earth, the eye reposes upon this little spot, as upon a verdant island in the midst of the desert. Among the choice fruits that grew in this garden of astronomy were several of the most distinguished ornaments of ancient science, of whom the most eminent were Hipparchus and Ptolemy. Hipparchus is justly considered as the Newton of antiquity.

He sought his knowledge of the heavenly bodies not in the illusory suggestions of a fervid imagination, but in the vigorous application of an intellect of the first order. Previous to this period, celestial observations were made chiefly with the naked eye: but Hipparchus was in possession of instruments for measuring angles, and knew how to resolve spherical triangles. These were great steps beyond all his predecessors.

He ascertained the length of the year within six minutes of the truth.

He discovered the eccentricity, or elliptical figure, of the solar orbit, although he supposed the sun actually to move uniformly in a circle, but the earth to be placed out of the centre. He also determined the positions of the points among the stars where the earth is nearest to the sun, and where it is most remote from it. He formed very accurate estimates of the obliquity of the ecliptic and of the precession of the equinoxes. He computed the exact period of the synodic revolution of the moon, and the inclination of the lunar orbit; discovered the backward motion of her node and of her line of apsides; and made the first attempts to ascertain the horizontal parallaxes of the sun and moon.

Upon the appearance of a new star in the firmament, he undertook, as already mentioned, to number the stars, and to a.s.sign to each its true place in the heavens, in order that posterity might have the means of judging what changes, if any, were going forward among these apparently unalterable bodies.

Although Hipparchus is generally considered as belonging to the Alexandrian school, yet he lived at Rhodes, and there made his astronomical observations, about one hundred and forty years before the Christian era. One of his treatises has come down to us; but his princ.i.p.al discoveries have been transmitted through the 'Almagest' of Ptolemy. Ptolemy flourished at Alexandria nearly three centuries after Hipparchus, in the second century after Christ. His great work, the 'Almagest,' which has conveyed to us most that we know respecting the astronomical knowledge of the ancients, was the universal text-book of astronomers for fourteen centuries.

[Ill.u.s.tration Fig. 77.]

The name of this celebrated astronomer has also descended to us, a.s.sociated with the system of the world which prevailed from Ptolemy to Copernicus, called the _Ptolemaic System_. The doctrines of the Ptolemaic system did not originate with Ptolemy, but, being digested by him out of materials furnished by various hands, it has come down to us under the sanction of his name. According to this system, the earth is the centre of the universe, and all the heavenly bodies daily revolve around it, from east to west. But although this hypothesis would account for the apparent diurnal motion of the firmament, yet it would not account for the apparent annual motion of the sun, nor for the slow motions of the planets from west to east. In order to explain these phenomena, recourse was had to _deferents_ and _epicycles_,--an explanation devised by Apollonius, one of the greatest geometers of antiquity. He conceived that, in the circ.u.mference of a circle, having the earth for its centre, there moves the centre of a smaller circle in the circ.u.mference of which the planet revolves. The circle surrounding the earth was called the deferent, while the smaller circle, whose centre was always in the circ.u.mference of the deferent, was called the epicycle. Thus, if E, Fig. 77, represents the earth, ABC will be the deferent, and DFG, the epicycle; and it is obvious that the motion of a body from west to east, in this small circle, would be alternately direct, stationary, and retrograde, as was explained, in a previous Letter, to be actually the case with the apparent motions of the planets. The hypothesis, however, is inconsistent with the _phases_ of Mercury and Venus, which, being between us and the sun, on both sides of the epicycle, would present their dark sides towards us at both conjunctions with the sun, whereas, at one of the conjunctions, it is known that they exhibit their disks illuminated. It is, moreover, absurd to speak of a geometrical centre, which has no bodily existence, moving round the earth on the circ.u.mference of another circle. In addition to these absurdities, the whole Ptolemaic system is enc.u.mbered with the following difficulties: First, it is a mere hypothesis, having no evidence in its favor except that it explains the phenomena. This evidence is insufficient of itself, since it frequently happens that each of two hypotheses, which are directly opposite to each other, will explain all the known phenomena. But the Ptolemaic system does not even do this, as it is inconsistent with the phases of Mercury and Venus, as already observed. Secondly, now that we are acquainted with the distances of the remoter planets, and especially the fixed stars, the swiftness of motion, implied in a daily revolution of the starry firmament around the earth, renders such a motion wholly incredible.

Thirdly, the centrifugal force which would be generated in these bodies, especially in the sun, renders it impossible that they can continue to revolve around the earth as a centre. Absurd, however, as the system of Ptolemy was, for many centuries no great philosophic genius appeared to expose its fallacies, and it therefore guided the faith of astronomers of all countries down to the time of Copernicus.

After the age of Ptolemy, the science made little progress. With the decline of Grecian liberty, the arts and sciences declined also; and the Romans, then masters of the world, were ever more ambitious to gain conquests over man than over matter; and they accordingly never produced a single great astronomer. During the middle ages, the Arabians were almost the only astronomers, and they cultivated this n.o.ble study chiefly as subsidiary to astrology.

At length, in the fifteenth century, Copernicus arose, and after forty years of intense study and meditation, divined the true system of the world. You will recollect that the Copernican system maintains, 1. That the _apparent_ diurnal motions of the heavenly bodies, from east to west, is owing to the _real_ revolution of the earth on its own axis from west to east; and, 2. That the sun is the centre around which the earth and planets all revolve from west to east. It rests on the following arguments: In the first place, _the earth revolves on its own axis_. First, because this supposition is vastly more _simple_.

Secondly, it is agreeable to _a.n.a.logy_, since all the other planets that afford any means of determining the question, are seen to revolve on their axes. Thirdly, the _spheroidal figure_ of the earth is the figure of equilibrium, that results from a revolution on its axis. Fourthly, the _diminished weight_ of bodies at the equator indicates a centrifugal force arising from such a revolution. Fifthly, bodies let fall from a high eminence, fall _eastward of their base_, indicating that when further from the centre of the earth they were subject to a greater velocity, which, in consequence of their inertia, they do not entirely lose in descending to the lower level.

In the second place, _the planets, including the earth, revolve about the sun_. First, the _phases_ of Mercury and Venus are precisely such, as would result from their circulating around the sun in orbits within that of the earth; but they are never seen in opposition, as they would be, if they circulate around the earth. Secondly, the superior planets do indeed revolve around the earth; but they also revolve around the sun, as is evident from their phases, and from the known dimensions of their orbits; and that the sun, and not the earth, is the _centre_ of their motions, is inferred from the greater symmetry of their motions, as referred to the sun, than as referred to the earth; and especially from the laws of gravitation, which forbid our supposing that bodies so much larger than the earth, as some of these bodies are, can circulate permanently around the earth, the latter remaining all the while at rest.

In the third place, the annual motion of _the earth_ itself is indicated also by the most conclusive arguments. For, first, since all the planets, with their satellites and the comets, revolve about the sun, a.n.a.logy leads us to infer the same respecting the earth and its satellite, as those of Jupiter and Saturn, and indicates that it is a law of the solar system that the smaller bodies revolve about the larger. Secondly, on the supposition that the earth performs an annual revolution around the sun, it is embraced along with the planets, in Kepler's law, that the squares of the times are as the cubes of the distances; otherwise, it forms an exception, and the only known exception, to this law.

Such are the leading arguments upon which rests the Copernican system of astronomy. They were, however, only very partially known to Copernicus himself, as the state both of mechanical science, and of astronomical observation, was not then sufficiently matured to show him the strength of his own doctrine, since he knew nothing of the telescope, and nothing of the principle of universal gravitation. The evidence of this beautiful system being left by Copernicus in so imperfect a state, and indeed his own reasonings in support of it being tinctured with some errors, we need not so much wonder that Tycho Brahe, who immediately followed Copernicus, did not give it his a.s.sent, but, influenced by certain pa.s.sages of Scripture, he still maintained, with Ptolemy, that the earth is in the centre of the universe; and he accounted for the diurnal motions in the same manner as Ptolemy had done, namely, by an actual revolution of the whole host of heaven around the earth every twenty-four hours. But he rejected the scheme of deferents and epicycles, and held that the moon revolves about the earth as the centre of her motions; but that the sun and not the earth is the centre of the planetary motions; and that the sun, accompanied by the planets, moves around the earth once a year, somewhat in the manner in which we now conceive of Jupiter and his satellites as revolving around the sun. This system is liable to most of the objections that lie against the Ptolemaic system, with the disadvantage of being more complex.

Kepler and Galileo, however, as appeared in the sketch of their lives, embraced the theory of Copernicus with great avidity, and all their labors contributed to swell the evidence of its truth. When we see with what immense labor and difficulty the disciples of Ptolemy sought to reconcile every new phenomenon of the heavens with their system, and then see how easily and naturally all the successive discoveries of Galileo and Kepler fall in with the theory of Copernicus, we feel the full force of those beautiful lines of Cowper which I have chosen for the motto of this Letter.

Newton received the torch of truth from Galileo, and transmitted it to his successors, with its light enlarged and purified; and since that period, every new discovery, whether the fruit of refined instrumental observation or of profound mathematical a.n.a.lysis, has only added l.u.s.tre to the glory of Copernicus.

With Newton commenced a new and wonderful era in astronomy, distinguished above all others, not merely for the production of the greatest of men, but also for the establishment of those most important auxiliaries to our science, the Royal Society of London, the Academy of Sciences at Paris, and the Observatory of Greenwich. I may add the commencement of the Transactions of the Royal Society, and the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences, which have been continued to the present time,--both precious storehouses of astronomical riches. The Observatory of Greenwich, moreover, has been under the direction of an extraordinary succession of great astronomers. Their names are Flamstead, Halley, Bradley, Maskeleyne, Pond, and Airy,--the last being still at his post, and worthy of continuing a line so truly ill.u.s.trious. The observations acc.u.mulated at this celebrated Observatory are so numerous, and so much superior to those of any other inst.i.tution in the world, that it has been said that astronomy would suffer little, if all other contemporary observations of the same kind were annihilated. Sir William Herschel, however, labored chiefly in a different sphere. The Astronomers Royal devoted themselves not so much to the discovery of new objects among the heavenly bodies, as to the exact determination of the places of the bodies already known, and to the developement of new laws or facts among the celestial motions. But Herschel, having constructed telescopes of far greater reach than any ever used before, employed them to sound new and untried depths in the profundities of s.p.a.ce. We have already seen what interesting and amazing discoveries he made of double stars, cl.u.s.ters, and nebulae.

The English have done most for astronomy in observation and discovery; but the French and Germans, in developing, by the most profound mathematical investigation, the great laws of physical astronomy.

It only remains to inquire, whether the Copernican system is now to be regarded as a full exposition of the 'Mechanism of the Heavens,' or whether there subsist higher orders of relations between the fixed stars themselves.

The revolutions of the _binary stars_ afford conclusive evidence of at least subordinate systems of suns, governed by the same laws as those which regulate the motions of the solar system. The _nebulae_ also compose peculiar systems, in which the members are evidently bound together by some common relation.

In these marks of organization,--of stars a.s.sociated together in cl.u.s.ters; of sun revolving around sun; and of nebulae disposed in regular figures,--we recognise different members of some grand system, links in one great chain that binds together all parts of the universe; as we see Jupiter and his satellites combined in one subordinate system, and Saturn and his satellites in another,--each a vast kingdom, and both uniting with a number of other individual parts, to compose an empire still more vast.

This fact being now established, that the stars are immense bodies, like the sun, and that they are subject to the laws of gravitation, we cannot conceive how they can be preserved from falling into final disorder and ruin, unless they move in harmonious concert, like the members of the solar system. Otherwise, those that are situated on the confines of creation, being retained by no forces from without, while they are subject to the attraction of all the bodies within, must leave their stations, and move inward with accelerated velocity; and thus all the bodies in the universe would at length fall together in the common centre of gravity. The immense distance at which the stars are placed from each other would indeed delay such a catastrophe; but this must be the ultimate tendency of the material world, unless sustained in one harmonious system by nicely-adjusted motions. To leave entirely out of view our confidence in the wisdom and preserving goodness of the Creator, and reasoning merely from what we know of the stability of the solar system, we should be justified in inferring, that other worlds are not subject to forces which operate only to hasten their decay, and to involve them in final ruin.

We conclude, therefore, that the material universe is one great system; that the combination of planets with their satellites const.i.tutes the first or lowest order of worlds; that next to these, planets are linked to suns; that these are bound to other suns, composing a still higher order in the scale of being; and finally, that all the different systems of worlds move around their common centre of gravity.

LETTER x.x.xI.

NATURAL THEOLOGY.

----"Philosophy, baptized In the pure fountain of Eternal Love, Has eyes indeed; and, viewing all she sees As meant to indicate a G.o.d to man, Gives Him the praise, and forfeits not her own."--_Cowper._

I INTENDED, my dear Friend, to comply with your request "that I would discuss the arguments which astronomy affords to natural theology;" but these Letters have been already extended so much further than I antic.i.p.ated, that I shall conclude with suggesting a few of those moral and religious reflections, which ought always to follow in the train of such a survey of the heavenly bodies as we have now taken.

Although there is evidence enough in the structure, arrangement, and laws, which prevail among the heavenly bodies, to prove the _existence_ of G.o.d, yet I think there are many subordinate parts of His works far better adapted to this purpose than these, being more fully within our comprehension. It was intended, no doubt, that the evidence of His being should be accessible to all His creatures, and should not depend on a kind of knowledge possessed by comparatively few. The mechanism of the eye is probably not more perfect than that of the universe; but we can a.n.a.lyze it better, and more fully understand the design of each part.

But the existence of G.o.d being once proved, and it being admitted that He is the Creator and Governor of the world, then the discoveries of astronomy are admirably adapted to perform just that office in relation to the Great First Cause, which is a.s.signed to them in the Bible, namely, "to declare the glory of G.o.d, and to show His handiwork." In other words, the discoveries of astronomy are peculiarly fitted,--more so, perhaps, than any other department of creation,--to exhibit the unity, power, and wisdom, of the Creator.

The most modern discoveries have multiplied the proofs of the _unity_ of G.o.d. It has usually been offered as sufficient evidence of the truth of this doctrine, that the laws of Nature are found to be uniform when applied to the utmost bounds of the _solar system_; that the law of gravitation controls alike the motions of Mercury, and those of Ura.n.u.s; and that its operation is one and the same upon the moon and upon the satellites of Saturn. It was, however, impossible, until recently, to predicate the same uniformity in the great laws of the universe respecting the starry worlds, except by a feeble a.n.a.logy. However improbable, it was still possible, that in these distant worlds other laws might prevail, and other Lords exercise dominion. But the discovery of the revolutions of the binary stars, in exact accordance with the law of gravitation, not merely in a single instance, but in many instances, in all cases, indeed, wherever those revolutions have advanced so far as to determine their law of action, gives us demonstration, instead of a.n.a.logy, of the prevalence of the same law among the other systems as that which rules in ours.

The marks of a still higher organization in the structure of cl.u.s.ters and nebulae, all bearing that same characteristic union of resemblance and variety which belongs to all the other works of creation that fall under our notice, speak loudly of one, and only one, grand design. Every new discovery of the telescope, therefore, has added new proofs to the great truth that G.o.d is one: nor, so far as I know, has a single fact appeared, that is not entirely consonant with it. Light, moreover, which brings us intelligence, and, in most cases, the only intelligence we have, of these remote orbs, testifies to the same truth, being similar in its properties and uniform in its motions, from whatever star it emanates.

In displays of the _power_ of Jehovah, nothing can compare with the starry heavens. The magnitudes, distances, and velocities, of the heavenly bodies are so much beyond every thing of this kind which belongs to things around us, from which we borrowed our first ideas of these qualities, that we can scarcely avoid looking with incredulity at the numerical results to which the unerring principles of mathematics have conducted us. And when we attempt to apply our measures to the fixed stars, and especially to the nebulae, the result is absolutely overwhelming: the mind refuses its aid in our attempts to grasp the great ideas. Nor less conspicuous, among the phenomena of the heavenly bodies, is the _wisdom_ of the Creator. In the first place, this attribute is every where exhibited _in the happy adaptation of means to their ends_. No principle can be imagined more simple, and at the same time more effectual to answer the purposes which it serves, than gravitation. No position can be given to the sun and planets so fitted, as far as we can judge, to fulfil their mutual relations, as that which the Creator has given them. I say, as far as we can judge; for we find this to be the case in respect to our own planet and its attendant satellite, and hence have reason to infer that the same is the case in the other planets, evidently holding, as they do, a similar relation to the sun. Thus the position of the earth at just such a distance from the sun as suits the nature of its animal and vegetable kingdoms, and confining the range of solar heat, vast as it might easily become, within such narrow bounds; the inclination of the earth's axis to the plane of its...o...b..t, so as to produce the agreeable vicissitudes of the seasons, and increase the varieties of animal and vegetable life, still confining the degree of inclination so exactly within the bounds of safety, that, were it much to transcend its present limits, the changes of temperature of the different seasons would be too sudden and violent for the existence of either animals or vegetables; the revolution of the earth on its axis, so happily dividing time into hours of business and of repose; the adaptation of the moon to the earth, so as to afford to us her greatest amount of light just at the times when it is needed most, and giving to the moon just such a quant.i.ty of matter, and placing her at just such a distance from the earth, as serves to raise a tide productive of every conceivable advantage, without the evils which would result from a stagnation of the waters on the one hand, or from their overflow on the other;--these are a few examples of the wisdom displayed in the mutual relations inst.i.tuted between the sun, the earth, and the moon.

In the second place, similar marks of wisdom are exhibited in _the many useful and important purposes_ _which the same thing is made to serve_.

Thus the sun is at once the great regulator of the planetary motions, and the fountain of light and heat. The moon both gives light by night and raises the tides. Or, if we would follow out this principle where its operations are more within our comprehension, we may instance the _atmosphere_. When man constructs an instrument, he deems it sufficient if it fulfils one single purpose as the watch, to tell the hour of the day, or the telescope, to enable him to see distant objects; and had a being like ourselves made the atmosphere, he would have thought it enough to have created a medium so essential to animal life, that to live is to breathe, and to cease to breathe is to die. But beside this, the atmosphere has manifold uses, each entirely distinct from all the others. It conveys to plants, as well as animals, their nourishment and life; it tempers the heat of Summer with its breezes; it binds down all fluids, and prevents their pa.s.sing into the state of vapor; it supports the clouds, distils the dew, and waters the earth with showers; it multiplies the light of the sun, and diffuses it over earth and sky; it feeds our fires, turns our machines, wafts our s.h.i.+ps, and conveys to the ear all the sentiments of language, and all the melodies of music.

In the third place, the wisdom of the Creator is strikingly manifested in the provision he has made for the _stability of the universe_. The perturbations occasioned by the motions of the planets, from their action on each other, are very numerous, since every body in the system exerts an attraction on every other, in conformity with the law of universal gravitation. Venus and Mercury, approaching, as they do at times, comparatively near to the earth, sensibly disturb its motions; and the satellites of the remoter planets greatly disturb each other's movements. Nor was it possible to endow this principle with the properties it has, and make it operate as it does in regulating the motions of the world, without involving such an incident. On this subject, Professor Whewell, in his excellent work composing one of the Bridgewater Treatises, remarks: "The derangement which the planets produce in the motion of one of their number will be very small, in the course of one revolution; but this gives us no security that the derangement may not become very large, in the course of many revolutions. The cause acts perpetually, and it has the whole extent of time to work in. Is it not easily conceivable, then, that, in the lapse of ages, the derangements of the motions of the planets may acc.u.mulate, the orbits may change their form, and their mutual distances may be much increased or diminished? Is it not possible that these changes may go on without limit, and end in the complete subversion and ruin of the system? If, for instance, the result of this mutual gravitation should be to increase considerably the eccentricity of the earth's...o...b..t, or to make the moon approach continually nearer and nearer to the earth, at every revolution, it is easy to see that, in the one case, our year would change its character, producing a far greater irregularity in the distribution of the solar heat; in the other, our satellite must fall to the earth, occasioning a dreadful catastrophe. If the positions of the planetary orbits, with respect to that of the earth, were to change much, the planets might sometimes come very near us, and thus increase the effect of their attraction beyond calculable limits. Under such circ.u.mstances, 'we might have years of unequal length, and seasons of capricious temperature; planets and moons, of portentous size and aspect, glaring and disappearing at uncertain intervals; tides, like deluges, sweeping over whole continents; and perhaps the collision of two of the planets, and the consequent destruction of all organization on both of them.' The fact really is, that changes are taking place in the motions of the heavenly bodies, which have gone on progressively, from the first dawn of science. The eccentricity of the earth's...o...b..t has been diminis.h.i.+ng from the earliest observations to our times. The moon has been moving quicker from the time of the first recorded eclipses, and is now in advance, by about four times her own breadth, of what her own place would have been, if it had not been affected by this acceleration. The obliquity of the ecliptic, also, is in a state of diminution, and is now about two fifths of a degree less than it was in the time of Aristotle."

But amid so many seeming causes of irregularity and ruin, it is worthy of a grateful notice, that effectual provision is made for the _stability of the solar system_. The full confirmation of this fact is among the grand results of physical astronomy. "Newton did not undertake to demonstrate either the stability or instability of the system. The decision of this point required a great number of preparatory steps and simplifications, and such progress in the invention and improvement of mathematical methods, as occupied the best mathematicians of Europe for the greater part of the last century. Towards the end of that time, it was shown by La Grange and La Place, that the arrangements of the solar system are stable; that, in the long run, the orbits and motions remain unchanged; and that the changes in the orbits, which take place in shorter periods, never transgress certain very moderate limits. Each orbit undergoes deviations on this side and on that side of its average state; but these deviations are never very great, and it finally recovers from them, so that the average is preserved. The planets produce perpetual perturbations in each other's motions; but these perturbations are not indefinitely progressive, but periodical, reaching a maximum value, and then diminis.h.i.+ng. The periods which this restoration requires are, for the most part, enormous,--not less than thousands, and in some instances, millions, of years. Indeed, some of these apparent derangements have been going on in the same direction from the creation of the world. But the restoration is in the sequel as complete as the derangement; and in the mean time the disturbance never attains a sufficient amount seriously to affect the stability of the system. 'I have succeeded in demonstrating,' says La Place, 'that, whatever be the ma.s.ses of the planets, in consequence of the fact that they all move in the same direction, in orbits of small eccentricity, and but slightly inclined to each other, their secular irregularities are periodical, and included within narrow limits; so that the planetary system will only oscillate about a mean state, and will never deviate from it, except by a very small quant.i.ty. The ellipses of the planets have been and always will be nearly circular. The ecliptic will never coincide with the equator; and the entire extent of the variation, in its inclination, cannot exceed three degrees.'"

To these observations of La Place, Professor Whewell adds the following, on the importance, to the stability of the solar system, of the fact that those planets which have _great ma.s.ses_ have orbits of _small eccentricity_. "The planets Mercury and Mars, which have much the largest eccentricity among the old planets, are those of which the ma.s.ses are much the smallest. The ma.s.s of Jupiter is more than two thousand times that of either of these planets. If the orbit of Jupiter were as eccentric as that of Mercury, all the security for the stability of the system, which a.n.a.lysis has yet pointed out, would disappear. The earth and the smaller planets might, by the near approach of Jupiter at his perihelion, change their nearly circular orbits into very long ellipses, and thus might fall into the sun, or fly off into remoter s.p.a.ce. It is further remarkable, that in the newly-discovered planets, of which the orbits are still more eccentric than that of Mercury, the ma.s.ses are still smaller, so that the same provision is established in this case, also."

With this hasty glance at the unity, power, and wisdom, of the Creator, as manifested in the greatest of His works, I close. I hope enough has been said to vindicate the sentiment that called 'Devotion, daughter of Astronomy!' I do not pretend that this, or any other science, is adequate of itself to purify the heart, or to raise it to its Maker; but I fully believe that, when the heart is already under the power of religion, there is something in the frequent and habitual contemplation of the heavenly bodies under all the lights of modern astronomy, very favorable to devotional feelings, inspiring, as it does, humility, in unison with an exalted sentiment of grateful adoration.

LETTER x.x.xII.

RECENT DISCOVERIES.

"All are but parts of one stupendous whole."--_Pope._

WITHIN a few years, astronomy has been enriched with a number of valuable discoveries, of which I will endeavor to give you a summary account in this letter. The heavens have been explored with far more powerful telescopes than before; instrumental measurements have been carried to an astonis.h.i.+ng degree of accuracy; numerous additions have been made to the list of small planets or asteroids; a comet has appeared of extraordinary splendor, remarkable, above all others, for its near approach to the sun; the distances of several of the fixed stars, an element long sought for in vain, have been determined; a large planet, composing in itself a magnificent world, has been added to the solar system, at such a distance from the central luminary as nearly to double the supposed dimensions of that system; various nebulae, before held to be irresolvable, have been resolved into stars; and a new satellite has been added to Saturn.

IMPROVEMENTS IN THE TELESCOPE.--Herschel's forty-feet telescope, of which I gave an account in my fourth letter (see page 36), remained for half a century unequalled in magnitude and power; but in 1842, Lord Rosse, an Irish n.o.bleman, commenced a telescope on a scale still more gigantic. Like Herschel's, it was a _reflector_, the image being formed by a concave mirror. This was six feet in diameter, and weighed three tons; and the tube was fifty feet in length. The entire cost of the instrument was sixty thousand dollars. Its reflecting surface is nearly twice as great as the great Herschelian, and consequently it greatly exceeds all instruments. .h.i.therto constructed in the _amount of light_ which it collects and transmits to the eye; and this adapts it peculiarly to viewing those objects, as nebulae, whose light is exceedingly faint. Accordingly, it has revealed to us new wonders in this curious department of astronomy. Some idea of the great dimensions of the _Leviathan_ telescope (as this instrument has been called) may be formed when it is said that the Dean of Ely, a full-sized man, walked through the tube from one end to the other, with an umbrella over his head.

But still greater advances have been made in refracting than in reflecting telescopes. Such was the difficulty of obtaining large pieces of gla.s.s which are free from impurities, and such the liability of large lenses to form obscure and colored images, that it was formerly supposed impossible to make a refracting telescope larger in diameter than five or six inches; but their size has been increased from one step to another, until they are now made more than fifteen inches in diameter; and so completely have all the difficulties arising from the imperfections of gla.s.s, and from optical defects inherent in lenses, been surmounted, that the great telescopes of Pulkova, at St.

Petersburgh, and of Harvard University (the two finest refractors in the world) are considered among the most perfect productions of the arts. A lens of only 15 inches in diameter seems, indeed, diminutive when compared with a concave reflector of six feet; but for most purposes of the astronomer, the Pulkova and Cambridge instruments are more useful than such great reflectors as those of Herschel and Rosse. If there is any particular in which these are more effective, it is in observations on the faintest nebulae, where it is necessary to collect and convey to the eye the greatest possible beam of light.