Astronomical Curiosities Part 17

"Near his[406] left thigh together sweep along The flock of Cl.u.s.terers. Not a mighty span Holds all, and they themselves are dim to see, And seven paths aloft men say they take, Yet six alone are viewed by mortal eye.

These seven are called by name Alkyoni Kelaini, Meropi and Steropi Taygeti, Elecktri, Maia queen.

They thus together small and faint roll on Yet notable at morn and eve through Zeus."[407]

The Pleiades are mentioned by Ovid. According to the ancient poets they were supposed to represent the children of Atlas and Hesperus, and on this account they were called Atlantids or Hesperides. From the resemblance in sound to the word p?e?a?, a pigeon, they were sometimes called "the doves," and for the same reason the word p?e??, to navigate, led to their being called the "s.h.i.+pping stars." The word p?e?a? was also applied to the priestesses of the G.o.d Zeus (Jupiter) at Dordona, in the groves of which temple there were a number of pigeons. This is, perhaps, what Aratus refers to in the last line of the extract quoted above.

According to Neapolitan legends, the name of Virgil's mother was Maia. The mother of Buddha, the Hindoo _avatar_, was also named Maia. In Italy the Pleiades were called _Gallinata_, and in France _poussiniere_, both of which mean the hen and chickens, a term also given to them by Al-Sufi. The old Blackfoot Indians called them "The Seven Perfect Ones." The Crees and Ojibway Indians called them the "Fisher Stars." The Adipones of Brazil and some other nations claimed that they sprang from the Pleiades! The Wyandot Indians called them "The Singing Maidens."

Photographs show that the brighter stars of the Pleiades are involved in nebulosity. That surrounding Maia seems to be of a spiral form. Now, there is a Sanscrit myth which represents Maia as "weaving the palpable universe," for which reason she was "typified as a spider." This seems very appropriate, considering the web of nebulous light which surrounds the stars of the group. Maia was also considered as a type of the universe, which again seems appropriate, as probably most of the stars were evolved from spiral nebulae.

The name Hyades is supposed to be derived from the Greek word ?e??, to rain, because in ancient times they rose at the rainy season.

In ancient Egypt, Aldebaran was called _ary_; and the Pleiades _chooa_, a word which means "thousands." The name Aldebaran seems to have been originally applied to the whole of the Hyades group. Aldebaran was also called by the Arabians _al-fanik_, the great Camel, and the Hyades _al-kilas_, the young Camels. The two close stars ? and ? Tauri were called _al-kalban_, the dogs of Aldebaran. La Condamine states that the Indians of the Amazon saw in the Hyades the head of a bull.

Gemini, the Twins, is the third constellation of the Zodiac. It was also called Gemelli, etc. According to Dupuis it represents the 11th "labour of Hercules"--his triumph over the dog Cerberus.[408] But some of Dupuis'

ideas seem very fanciful. The Twins are usually called Castor and Pollux, but they were also called by the ancient writers Apollo and Hercules; Jason and Triptolemus; Amphion and Zethus; and Theseus and Peritheus. In Egypt they represented the deities Horus and Hippocrates. Brown thinks that the "Great Twins" were originally the sun and moon, "who live alternately. As one is born the other dies; as one rises the other sets."[409] This applies to the full moon, but does not seem applicable to the other lunar phases.

Gemini was the constellation to which Dante supposed himself transported when he visited the stellar heavens.[410] He says he was born under the influence of this "sign."

Cancer, the Crab, is the next sign of the Zodiac. In the Greek mythology it was supposed to have been placed in the sky by Juno to commemorate the crab which pinched the toes of Hercules in the Lernaean marsh. The Greek name was t??. According to Dupuis it represents the 12th "labour of Hercules"--his capture of the golden apples in the Garden of the Hesperides, which were guarded by a Dragon. This Dragon is Draco, which was also called Custos Hesperidum.[411] But the connection between a crab and the myth of the golden apples is not obvious--unless some reference to "crab apples" is intended! Among the Romans, Cancer was consecrated to Mercury, and by the ancient Egyptians to their G.o.d Anubis.

The well-known cl.u.s.ter in Cancer called the Praesape, Al-Sufi says, is "a little spot which resembles a cloud, and is surrounded by four stars, two to the west [? and ? Cancri] and two to the east" [? and d]. This cl.u.s.ter is mentioned by Aratus, who calls it the "Manger." The word Praesape is often translated "Beehive," but there can be no doubt that it really means "Manger," referring to the stars ? and d Cancri, which the ancients called Aselli, the a.s.s's colts. These were supposed to represent the a.s.ses which in the war of Jupiter against the Giants helped his victory by their braying!

Admiral Smyth says in his _Bedford Catalogue_ (p. 202) that he found ? and d Cancri both of 4th magnitude; but the photometric measures show that d is now distinctly brighter than ?. An occultation of d Cancri by the moon is recorded as having occurred on September 3, B.C. 240.

The fine constellation Leo, the Lion, is the next "sign" of the Zodiac, and is marked by the well-known "Sickle." According to Dupuis, it represents the first "labour of Hercules"--the killing of the Nemaelian lion. Manilius called it Nemaeus. It was also called Janonus sidus, Bacchi sidus, etc. The Greek name was e???, e?e??, or e???. In ancient Egypt, Leo was sacred to Osiris, and many of the Egyptian monuments are ornamented with lions' heads. It is stated in the Horapolla that its appearance was supposed to announce the annual rising of the Nile.

Regulus (a Leonis) is the brightest and most southern of the stars in the "Sickle." Al-Sufi says "it is situated in the heart and is of the 1st magnitude. It is that which is called _al-maliki_, the royal star. It is marked on the astrolabe as _kalb al-asad_, the Heart of the Lion" (whence the name Cor Leonis). Modern photometric measures make it about 13 magnitude. It has an 8 magnitude companion at about 177" distance (Burnham) which is moving through s.p.a.ce with the bright star, and is therefore at probably the same distance from the earth as its brilliant primary. This companion is double (85, 125: 3"05, Burnham). The spectroscope shows that Regulus is approaching the earth at the rate of 5 miles a second. Its parallax is very small--about 0"022, according to Dr. Elkin--which indicates that it is at a vast distance from the earth; and its brightness shows that it must be a sun of enormous size.

Ptolemy called it as???s???, whence its Latin name Regulus, first used by Copernicus as the diminutive of _rex_.[412]

The next constellation of the Zodiac is Virgo, the Virgin. It was also called by the ancients Ceres, Isis, Erigone, Fortuna, Concorda, Astraea, and Themis. The Greek name was fae???. Ceres was the G.o.ddess of the harvest. Brown thinks that it probably represents the ancient G.o.ddess Istar, and also Ashtoreth. According to Prof. Sayce it is the same as the Accadian sign of "the errand of Istar, a name due to the belief that it was in August that the G.o.ddess Astarte descended into Hades in search of her betrothed, the sun G.o.d Tammuz, or Adonis, who had been slain by the boar's tusk."[413] The ear of corn (Spica) is found on the ancient Egyptian monuments, and is supposed to represent the fertility caused by the annual rising of the Nile. According to Aratus, the Virgin lived on earth during the golden age under the name of Justice, but that in the bronze age she left the earth and took up her abode in the heavens.

"Justice, loathing that race of men, Winged her flight to heaven."

The Sphinx near the Great Pyramid has the head of a virgin on the body of a lion, representing the G.o.ddess Isis (Virgo) and her husband Osiris (Leo).

Al-Sufi's 5th star of Virgo is Flamsteed 63 Virginis. Al-Sufi says it is a double star of the 5th magnitude. In Al-Sufi's time it formed a "naked-eye double" with 61 Virginis, but owing to large proper motion, 61 has now moved about 26 minutes of arc towards the south, and no longer forms a double with 63. This interesting fact was first pointed out by Flammarion in his work _Les etoiles_ (p. 373).

Libra, the Balance, is one of the "signs" of the Zodiac, but originally formed the claws of the Scorpion. It was called Juguna by Cicero, and Mochos by Ampelius. The Greek name was fa????e. Virgil suggests that it represented the justice of the emperor Augustus, honoured by the name of a constellation; but probably this refers to the birth of Augustus under the sign of Libra, as Scaliger has pointed out. According to Brown, "the daily seizing of the dying western sun by the claws of the Scorpion of darkness is reduplicated annually at the Autumnal Equinox, when the feeble waning sun of shortening days falls ever earlier into his enemy's grasp;"[414]

and he says, "The Balance or Scales (Libra), which it will be observed is in itself neither diurnal nor nocturnal, is the only one of the zodiacal signs not Euphratean in origin, having been imported from Egypt and representing originally the balance of the sun at the horizon between the upper and under worlds; and secondarily the equality of the days and nights at the equinox."[415]

According to Houzeau, Libra was formed at the beginning of the second century B.C., and it does not appear in any writings before those of Geminus and Varron.[416]

Milton says in _Paradise Lost_:--

"The Eternal to prevent such horrid fray, Hung forth in heaven his golden scales, yet seen Betwixt Astraea and the Scorpion's sign."

(Here Astraea is Virgo.)

It is worth noticing that both Ptolemy and Al-Sufi rated the star ? Librae as two magnitudes brighter than ? Librae. The two stars are now practically of equal brightness (5th magnitude), and it seems impossible to believe that this could have been the case in Al-Sufi's time. Surely a careful observer like Al-Sufi, who estimated the relative brightness of stars to a third of a magnitude, could not possibly have made an error of two magnitudes in the brightness of two stars near each other! It should be stated, however, that ? Librae was rated 5th magnitude by Argelander and Heis, and ?, 6th magnitude by the same excellent observers.

The next "sign" of the Zodiac, Scorpion, was consecrated by the Romans to Mars, and by the Egyptians to Typhon.[417] It was called _Nepa_ by Cicero, _Martis sidus_ by Manilius, and _Fera magna_ by Aratus. The Greek name was pa???.

Mr. E. B. k.n.o.bel has called attention to a curious remark of Ptolemy with reference to the bright star Antares (a Scorpii), "Media earum quae _tendit ad rapinam_ quae dicitur Cor Scorpionis"; and he made a similar remark with reference to Betelgeuse (a Orionis) and others. But Mr. Robert Brown[418] explains the remark by the fact that in ancient times these stars rose in the morning at a time when caravans were exposed to dangers from robbers. Thus the term had nothing to do with the aspect or colour of these stars, but was merely a reference to their supposed astrological influence on human affairs.

In the Egyptian _Book of the Dead_, Silkit was a G.o.ddess who a.s.sumed the form of a scorpion in the sky. She was supposed to be the daughter of _Ra_.

With reference to stars "outside" the ancient figure of Scorpio, the first, Al-Sufi says, "is a star which immediately follows _al-schaulat_"

[?] and ?, "it is of small 4th magnitude; Ptolemy calls it ?efe??e?d??"

[nebulous]. Schjelerup, in his translation of Al-Sufi's work, does not identify this object; but it is very evidently ? Telescopii, which lies exactly in the position described by Al-Sufi. Now, it is a very interesting and curious fact that Ptolemy called it nebulous, for in the same telescopic field with it is the nebula _h_ 3705 (= Dunlop 557).

Dunlop describes it as a "small well-defined rather bright nebula, about 20" in diameter; a very small star precedes it, but is not involved; following ? Telescopii." Sir John Herschel at the Cape found it fairly resolved into very faint stars, and adds, "The whole _ground_ of the heavens, for an immense extent is thickly sown with such stars. A beautiful object."[419] This perhaps accounts for the nebulous appearance of the star as seen by Ptolemy.

Several _novae_ or temporary stars are recorded as having appeared in Scorpio. One in the year B.C. 134 is stated by Pliny to have induced Hipparchus to form his catalogue of stars. This star was also observed in China. Its exact position is unknown, but Flammarion thinks it may possibly have appeared about 4 north of the star Scorpii.

Another new star is said to have appeared in A.D. 393, somewhere in the Scorpion's tail. One in A.D. 1203 and another in 1584 are also mentioned, the latter near p Scorpii.

The constellation Scorpio seems to be referred to by Dante in his _Purgatorio_ (ix. 4-6) in the lines--

"De gemma la sua fronte era lucenta Poste in figura del fredda animale Che con la coda percota la genta,"

perhaps suggested by Ovid's remark--

"Scorpius exhibit caudaque menabitur unca."[420]

Next to Scorpio comes Sagittarius, the Archer. It is said to have been placed in the sky as a symbol of Hercules, a hero who was held in the greatest veneration by the ancient Egyptians. The horse, usually a.s.sociated with this constellation, was a symbol of war. It was also called by the ancients Chiron, Arcitenens, Minotaurus, Croton, etc. The Greek name was pa???, or pa???. Chiron was supposed to be the son of Saturn and Phillyra, and first taught men to ride on horses. The name is derived from the Greek ?e??, a hand. Some writers, however, think that Chiron is represented by the constellation of the Centaur, and others say that Sagittarius represents the Minotaur loved by Persephone. According to Dupuis, Sagittarius represents the 5th "labour of Hercules," which consisted in hunting the birds of the lake Stymphalus, which ravaged the neighbouring countries. These birds are perhaps represented by Cygnus, Altair, and the Vulture (Lyra). The Lyre probably represents the musical instrument which Hercules used to frighten the birds.[421]

According to Al-Sufi, the Arabians called the stars ?, d, e, and ?

Sagittarii which form a quadrilateral figure, "the Ostrich which goes to the watering place," because they compared the Milky Way to a river. They compared the stars s, f, t, and ? Sagittarii, which form another quadrilateral, to an ostrich which has drunk and returns from the "watering place." He says that the star ? Sagittarii forms with these two "ostriches" a tent, and certainly the figure formed by ?, f, ?, e, and d is not unlike a tent. Al-Sufi says more about these "ostriches"; but the ideas of the old Arabians about the stars seem very fanciful.

A "temporary star" is recorded in the Chinese Annals of Ma-touan-lin as having appeared in May, B.C. 48, about 4 distant from Sagittarii.

Another in the year 1011 A.D. appeared near the quadrilateral figure formed by the stars s, t, ?, and f Sagittarii. This may perhaps be identified with the object referred to by Hepidannus in the year 1012, which was of extraordinary brilliancy, and remained visible "in the southern part of the heavens during three months." Another is mentioned near the same place in A.D. 386 (April to July).[422] The number of "temporary stars" recorded in this part of the heavens is very remarkable.

According to Brown, Sagittarius is depicted on a stone, cir. B.C. 1100, found at Babilu, and now in the British Museum.[423]

The next of the "signs of the Zodiac" is Capricornus, the Goat. In the Arabo-Latin edition of Ptolemy's _Almagest_ it is called Alcaucurus. It is supposed to represent Amalthea, the goat which nursed Jupiter. According to Dupuis it represented the 6th "labour of Hercules," which was the cleaning out of the Augean stables.[424]

a_{2} Capricorni is the northern of two stars of the 4th magnitude (a and Capricorni). It really consists of two stars visible to the naked eye.

The second of these two stars (a_{1}) is not mentioned by Al-Sufi, but I find that, owing to proper motion, they were nearer together in his time (tenth century), and were evidently seen by him as one star. Capricorni (about 3rd magnitude) is a very wide double star (3, 6; 205"), which may be seen with any small telescope. The fainter star was found to be a close double by Burnham. At present is brighter than a, although rated of the same brightness by Al-Sufi.

Aquarius is the next "sign of the Zodiac." It is supposed to represent a man pouring water out of an urn or bucket. Other names given to this constellation were Aristaeus, Ganymede, Cecrops, Amphora, Urna, and Aqua tyrannus. According to Dupuis it represents the 7th "labour of Hercules,"

which was his victory over the famous bull which ravaged Crete.[425] But the connection between a bull and a bucket is not obvious. Aquarius is represented in several places on the Egyptian monuments. Some of the ancient poets supposed that it represented Deucalion (the Noah of the Greek story of the Deluge); others thought that it represented Cecrops, who came to Greece from Egypt, built Athens, and was also called Bifornis.

Others say that he was Ganymede, the cup-bearer of the G.o.ds.

There is some difficulty about the identification of some of Al-Sufi's stars in Aquarius. His sixth star (Fl. 7) is nearly 10 south-west of Aquarii, and is, Al-Sufi says, "the following of three stars in the left hand, and precedes the fourth [] ... it is of the 6th magnitude. Ptolemy calls it third, but in reality it is very faint" [now about 6th magnitude]. The seventh [] is the middle one of the three and about 4 magnitude, although Al-Sufi calls it "small fifth" [Ptolemy rated it 4].

The eighth star, e, is the preceding of the three and about 38, agreeing closely with Al-Sufi's 43. Ptolemy rated it 3. This star is mentioned under the name _nou_ in the time of _Tcheou-Kong_ in the twelfth century B.C. Al-Sufi says, "These three stars are followed by a star of the 5th magnitude which Ptolemy has not mentioned. It is brighter than the sixth star" [Fl. 7]. This is evidently ? Aquarii. If, however, we plot Ptolemy's positions as given by Al-Sufi, it seems probable that _Ptolemy's_ sixth star was really ?, and that either or Fl. 7 was not seen by him. As Ptolemy called his seventh star 4th magnitude, and his sixth and eighth stars 3rd magnitude, some considerable change of brightness seems to have taken place in these stars; as ? is now only 4 and Fl. 7 only a bright sixth. Variation was suspected in Fl. 7[426] by Gould. I found it very reddish with binocular in October, 1892. Burnham found it to be a close double star, the companion being about 12th magnitude at a distance of only 2". It is probably a binary.

According to Al-Sufi, the Arabians called the second and third stars of the figure (a and ? Aquarii) _sad al-malik_ (_malk_ or _mulk_), "the Good Fortune of the king." They called the fourth and fifth stars ( and ?

Aquarii) with the twenty-eighth star of Capricornus (_c_) _sad al-sund_, "the Good Fortune of the Happy Events." "This is the 24th mansion of the moon." These stars rose at the time of year when the cold ends, and they set at the time the heat ends. Hence, Al-Sufi says, "when they rise the rains begin, and when they set the unhealthy winds cease, fertility abounds, and the dew falls." Hence probably the Arabic names. This, of course, applies to the climate of Persia and Arabia, and not to the British Isles. Al-Sufi says, "They call the 6th, 7th, and 8th stars _sad bula_, 'The Good Fortune which swallows up!' This is the 23rd mansion of the moon. They say that it is so called because that at the time of the Deluge it rose at the moment when G.o.d said, 'O earth! absorb the waters'

(Koran, chap, xi., v. 46). They called the stars ?, p, ? and ? Aquarii _sad al-achbija_, 'the the Good Fortune of the tents'; this is the 25th mansion of the moon, and they give them this name because of these four stars, three form a triangle, the fourth [?] being in the middle." The three were considered to form a tent.