Putnam's Handy Law Book for the Layman Part 7

The use of L.S., enclosed in brackets, thus [L.S.] is just as effective as a seal of wax or a wafer. In many states a corporation need not use its corporate seal, any other may be subst.i.tuted. The federal rule especially requires the use of the corporate seal and that it be affixed by someone who was properly authorized to do this.

By statute the names of two witnesses are required, and when omitted the deed is not only defective, but in some states at least is void. A witness need not write his name in the grantor's presence, if asked to sign in the proper place as a witness this will suffice.

A lease of land is also a deed differing from those mentioned in conveying the use of land for a fixed period and on varying terms.

A deed should be completed before delivering it, the same rule applies to most legal writings. Unimportant alterations may be made, and if any are made, the question may prove difficult, are they important or not. Of course if both parties agree to them, the validity of the deed is not impaired. Whenever they do appear, in some states the law presumes they were made before delivering the deed, but this is not the rule everywhere.

Who can make or execute a deed? A minor cannot make a legal deed, and if he attempts to do so he can avoid or set it aside after he becomes of age whenever he acts with reasonable prompt.i.tude. If he does not thus act, his delay will be regarded as a ratifying of his previous action. What action will have this effect is a fact to be proved whenever the controversy arises.

Usually a deed need not be read to the grantee, nor can he avoid it because he did not know the contents, except when fraud has been practised on him. To a blind or ignorant man a different rule applies.

The deed should be read to him, and if this is not done, or if it is wrongly read to him, he can have it set aside in a proper legal proceeding.

Delivery is essential; to do this two things are required. The grantor must give up the deed and the grantee must actually accept it, consequently the delivery of a deed after the grantor's death would not be valid. There must be an actual delivery by him, and though a deed may be completed in every other respect, it is not an effective deed. A deed therefore stolen from one's drawer and delivered to the grantee would not be valid, however innocent the grantee might be in receiving it. Many difficulties have arisen in applying this rule.

When the question comes before a court, it seeks after the intention of the parties, and is guided by it when ascertained. If therefore a deed were lying on a table and the grantor should say to the grantee, take it, and he did so, the delivery would be complete; but if he should get it in a surrept.i.tious way there would be no legal delivery.

Suppose a deed were mailed to the grantee, or handed to another person to deliver to the grantee, this would be a good delivery.

As soon as the deed has been delivered, it should be taken to the recorder's office to be recorded. Every state has offices in the towns or counties for keeping a perfect copy of all deeds relating to the transfer of the lands within the limits of the town or county. The object of this is to protect purchasers, for, if this were not done, the owner of land might sell it to a purchaser a second time who knew nothing of the previous sale, and then someone would be the loser. To guard against such frauds the system of registration was established at an early day in American history. A purchaser therefore should take his deed at once to the proper recording office for record, and this is regarded as notice to the world from the time of delivering the deed to the recorder, who makes a note thereon of the day and hour it was left with him. Suppose that some creditor of the grantor, not knowing of the sale, should attach the land as the property of the grantor to secure a debt due to him, could he hold it as against the purchaser? Ordinarily the purchaser could still retain the land, and the same rule would apply between him and a second purchaser, though buying in good faith supposing the grantor was the real owner. In some states a statute protects the purchaser by giving him a fixed period of two or three months or more to record his deed. The safe rule is to leave the deed with the recorder as soon as possible after receiving it.

It is a general practice to do another thing with deeds, to make or take an acknowledgment of them, and in some states this must be done before they can be recorded. This consists on the part of the grantor going before a proper officer, often a notary public, justice of the peace, clerk of a court of record, commissioner of deeds, and making oath that he has duly executed the above deed. This oath appears in the form of a certificate at the bottom of the deed or appended thereto and is signed by the officer, who also attaches his official seal. When a deed has thus been acknowledged it can be used in a legal proceeding as evidence without requiring further proof of its execution. But if it had not been acknowledged, then a court would require some proof that the deed had been made and delivered before accepting it as proof of the fact.

When a married woman executes a deed the officer who took the acknowledgment of the deed must make an examination, apart from her husband, to ascertain whether or no her act was voluntary, and he must also record the fact. The acknowledgment should be made after the examination. A defective acknowledgment by a married woman is worthless, nor will any court compel her to make another one. Should she make another deed, however, with a proper acknowledgment this would be legal.

The officials who take acknowledgments possess different authority, some can take them only of land situated in their respective states; others have authority to take acknowledgments of deeds of land in every state. In all the states are commissioners of deeds, so called, who are authorized to act outside their own state. Some persons who have an important conveyancing business have qualified themselves to thus act as commissioners for many states, and perform a highly useful service.

If a mistake has been made in a deed can it be corrected? The general rule is it can be amended in all cases of fraud, accident, or mistake.

How can this be done? If the grantor is unwilling to do right, the purchaser can by a proper application to a court, or court of equity, ask for the correction of the deed or such other relief as justice requires. Suppose the grantor has declared in his deed that the land contains a hundred acres and a survey finds only fifty. This would be a palpable fraud and a court would, if requested, order the reconveyance of the land and return of the money. Suppose the deed covered no land at all belonging to the grantor, this would be a still greater fraud. Suppose the deed said one hundred acres more or less, and a survey found only fifty acres. The purchaser bought supposing that there was no such deficit, but perhaps a small one, what would a court do? Doubtless it would hold that the grantor tried to deceive the other party and would grant relief.

The land sold must be bounded or described. As land is increasing everywhere in value more pains is taken in describing it, than formerly. Large tracts have been surveyed by the government and are indicated as sections, quarter sections, yet even these boundaries are sometimes imperfect, caused by incorrect surveys, whereby lands overlap, or otherwise have defective boundaries.

One of the well-known rules is, monuments control corners and distances. This is founded on much experience, for this shows that courses differ from variations in the compa.s.s, changes in the surface, etc. Though monuments may be moved intentionally or by natural causes, they can be more trusted in the long run of things.

The location of a monument is a question of fact. It is sometimes said that natural monuments possess higher value than artificial ones, this depends on the character of the artificial one. A large stone set in a secure place surely is a better boundary than a wayward stream whose course is changed by every freshet. In marking the public lands of the western territories by statute monuments must designate the corners of the tract. But when these are lost then corners and distances become the guide. Oral evidence may be admitted to establish the location of monuments, and even hearsay evidence may be used for the purpose.

In a city lot courses and distances play a larger part in fixing the boundaries, and are more carefully defined. Often the boundary is to the center of a dividing wall.

The boundary of land by a non-navigable stream is to the center; and if one owns on both sides of such a stream he is the owner also of the bed. But if land is bounded by the bank or sh.o.r.e of a stream, or by other words of clearly evident exclusion, the stream is excluded. The rule is different that applies to a tidal navigable stream. In some states the boundary is high-water mark; in other states low-water. In both cases the riparian owner, so-called, may erect a wharf extending from his land subject to public control. The boundary of a natural pond or lake, either in its natural state or raised artificially, is low-water mark. Nor is the law changed by the conversion of a fresh water pond into a salt pond by the hand of man. The boundary to an artificial pond is through the center.

The t.i.tle to the bed of all lakes, ponds, and navigable rivers to the ordinary high-water mark is vested in the states. Thus the people who live around them may enjoy the waters the same as others enjoy tidal waters. Nor is the state t.i.tle affected by any manipulation of the land above the surface of the water.

The same rules of law apply to land situated along public highways. If a deed should bound the land "by or along a highway," it would include the land to the center; only words of clearly intending exclusion have a different effect. If a deed should say "by the side" of a highway, it might be excluded and it might not, the courts do not agree. All agree that the intention of the parties should govern, but differ as to intention expressed in the words they have used. The law is full of such difficulties. If a highway is abandoned, the adjoining owners can extend their lines to the center, unless one of them can prove that he is ent.i.tled to more than one half.

In investigating the t.i.tle to real estate it is the duty of an attorney employed for that purpose, says Justice Trenchard, "to make a painstaking examination of the records and to report all facts relating to the t.i.tle. He is, therefore, liable for any injury that may result to his client from negligence in the performance of his duties--that is, from a failure to exercise ordinary care and skill in discovering in the records and reporting all the deeds, mortgages, judgments, etc., that affect the t.i.tle in respect to which he is employed."

=Divisional Tree.=--When the base of a tree is wholly on the land of one owner the whole tree belongs to him. An adjoining owner, however, may cut off at the divisional line such branches as over-hang his land without notice and without reference to the length of time they have been growing. To do this he cannot go on the land of his neighbor, but must stay on his own land. A different rule applies to a tree that stands on a divisional line and both owners have an interest therein.

=Dower.=--Dower is the interest that a wife has in her husband's land after his death, and consists, unless modified by statute, of the use of one third during her life. While both live her interest is so secured to her by law that he cannot sell and convey any of his land unless she unites with him in signing a proper deed of conveyance. In most states this interest or dower is paramount to the claims of her husband's creditors. But if there is any lien on the land at the time of his death, like a mortgage, she cannot claim a preference or priority over the mortgagee.

She can claim her dower in any land belonging to her husband which her children, if she had any, could have inherited as the heirs of their father. When her dower is in mortgaged land, she cannot get possession until the mortgage has been paid. Again, where land, wherein she has a dower interest, must be sold, her right to the proceeds follows the sale. If her husband was not in possession of the land claimed by him before and after marriage, her dower will not become effective until gaining possession. If he were only the nominal and not the real possessor, her dower will not attach to the land, nor if he were in possession as trustee, the real owners.h.i.+p belonging to another.

A legal marriage is necessary to sustain a dower estate. Whenever a marriage can be set aside for some illegality, and is not, it will sustain her dower on his death. So, too, her dower may be lost or barred by a legal separation; if she should re-marry, or the divorce is set aside, her dower would revive. Her dower may also be lost should her husband legally part with his estate, or by any legal proceeding it should be taken away from him; thus, should another claim it and prove that he had the better t.i.tle. In other words she loses her dower whenever her husband has no estate from which her dower can be carved out. It is true that an adverse claimant cannot give any t.i.tle to her husband's land that would bar her right thereto.

The reason for this rule is that, like a minor, her rights cannot be acquired against one who is unable by reason of age or other infirmity to protect himself.

The wife is ent.i.tled to have dower a.s.signed to her immediately after her husband's death. Until this is done, she has the right of common law for the period of forty days, called quarantine, to reside in her husband's house, provided she does not marry during that time.

Dower may be a.s.signed to her in two ways. One way is by direction of the court, which ascertains by proper evidence the extent, location and value of the husband's lands, and then directs the sheriff to carry out its order in a.s.signing to her a specific portion for her use during life. The other way is by agreement. In some states money is a.s.signed to her instead of land as dower.

Dower may be barred by agreement made before marriage. These arrangements, marriage settlements, are becoming more frequent with the increase of wealth and complexities respecting the holding of property. Sometimes a testator provides for his widow in lieu of dower. In such a case she may accept the gift, or reject it and claim her dower rights. Suppose a testator should own a large amount of land, and in his will should give her only a small amount of money in lieu of dower. If eager to get the most possible, she would reject the gift of money and claim her dower rights. On the other hand, suppose he had but very little or no real estate, then she doubtless would accept the money gift, unless she could claim a still larger sum by virtue of some statute made to fit such cases.

Dower does not exist in crops or trees severed from the land, but does exist in mines and quarries belonging to the husband which were opened and worked during his life. If lands have been exchanged by the husband, she can elect in which she shall take her dower, but not in both. There can be no dower in a mere personal privilege, or in a revocable license pertaining to land. The widow of a partner is ordinarily ent.i.tled to dower in so much of the partners.h.i.+p land as is left after the payment of the firm's debts and the adjustment of matters between the partners. But if an agreement among them that the land shall be considered as personal property for all purposes, then no dower therein can be claimed by the widow of any partner.

A wife can release her inchoate dower or future expectation of receiving it by joining in a conveyance with her husband for that purpose. In order to make the election binding, it must be made with full knowledge on the widow's part of her husband's estate, and the relative value of her dower interest. The election is personal, and cannot be exercised by her representatives after her death, nor by creditors; and if insane, this cannot be done by any committee or guardian acting under the authority of a court.

An absolute divorce, even though for the husband's fault, divests the wife of dower, unless her right is saved by statute. Quite frequently, the statute provides that there shall be no dower in case of divorce for the wife's fault. Occasionally it is provided by statute that divorce for the husband's fault shall not bar dower; and sometimes a statute requires dower to be a.s.signed immediately upon divorce without awaiting the husband's death. It may be added that the principles of the common law relating to dower have been largely modified by statute in all the states.

=Drunkenness.=--The courts are reluctant to recognize intoxication as an excuse either for committing a crime or for repudiating a contract, but if from long continued intemperate habits a man has become actually insane or incompetent, his actual mental condition will be recognized whatever may have produced it.

Again, in making a contract the other party could hardly deal with a man badly intoxicated without knowing his condition, consequently the element of fraud appears, and the contract may be declared invalid either for lack of contracting capacity on the part of the drunken man, or for fraud on the part of the other in taking advantage of his condition. His fraud would be still greater if he had designedly caused the drunkenness of the other. Either objection, however, renders the contract voidable rather than void, and should an intoxicated party, after he became sober ratify his contract, or fail to repudiate it and restore the consideration, if any, within a reasonable time, he would become bound.

The courts are still more reluctant to admit intoxication as an excuse for criminal acts. The courts hold that one who voluntarily deprives himself of self-control must have intended the consequences, therefore it is everywhere held that one who voluntarily becomes intoxicated, although he did so with no purpose to commit a crime when intoxicated, cannot claim immunity from criminal responsibility, or even a mitigation of the penalty, though having no capacity to distinguish between right and wrong. And yet, like so many legal rules, there are some marked exceptions to this one. Thus, since burglary is the entering of a house with the intent to commit a felony therein, one who blunders into a strange house because he is too drunk to know where he is or what he is doing has not committed the crime of burglary. So one who carried off the property of another through drunken ignorance does not commit larceny, as there is no intent in such a case to convert the property to the taker's own use. Another application has been made in cases of a.s.sault with intent to kill a person.

Again, says Peck, "if one is visibly intoxicated, it is the duty of those who come in contact with him to take his condition into account, and their use of due care will be judged in view of that fact. Even if the drunken person and the other are both negligent, the sober party may be liable under the doctrine of the last clear chance, if he fails to exercise toward the drunken man the degree of care which is evidently required to avoid injuring him. Especially is a common carrier, in dealing with a pa.s.senger who is on its car in an intoxicated condition, bound to take his helpless condition into account in removing him from the car or otherwise handling him, and not put him in a place of manifest danger to one in his condition."

It has also been held that the intoxication of one who uttered a slander may be admissible in mitigation of the damages, as utterances of a drunken man could not seriously impair the reputation of any one.

=Equitable Remedies.=--Elsewhere we have told how courts of law differ from courts of equity. In some states no separate courts exist, and wherever legal proceedings are established by a code or system of statute law, the form of complaint addressed to a court is quite the same in an equity case as in any other. But in states where code practice has not been established, the mode of setting forth one's grievance or wrong is by a bill or pet.i.tion, ending with a prayer for relief. We will now briefly state some of the things for which relief in equity may be sought.

One of the most common things is to compel persons who refuse to perform their contracts to execute them. Suppose one has agreed in writing properly signed to sell his farm to another, but is unwilling to give him a deed. It may be that he can get more for his farm, or he has made the discovery since selling it that it is worth much more, is underlaid with coal or oil, or that a railway is soon to be built near it that will enhance its value. If he went to a law court, all that it could do would be to compel the seller to give the purchaser such damages as he could prove he had sustained from the seller's failure to execute his agreement. But a court of equity can go further and compel the seller to give the purchaser a proper deed, the kind of deed mentioned in the agreement; or, if none was specified, the kind of deed usually given in such cases.

This remedy cannot be always sought whenever the seller fails to execute his contracts. The important limitation is, when the law has an adequate remedy, and the injured person has no need of resorting to a court of equity. All the ordinary agricultural and manufactured products fall within this cla.s.s, cotton, cattle, lumber, fruits, stock in trade and the like. But if a chattel has a sentimental value to the purchaser, a court of equity will decree that it must be delivered to him, because in such a case the damages would obviously be inadequate.

The same rule applies to all articles of a unique or rare value that cannot be duplicated; also to patented or copyrighted things that cannot be procured in the open market.

Suppose one has purchased the stock of a bank or railroad company, which the seller refuses to deliver, has the buyer a legal remedy for damages, or an equitable remedy to compel the seller to deliver the stock, or has he the choice of remedies? The courts have divided on this question. The better rule is, if the stock can be readily bought in the open market, the buyer has only a law remedy to recover damages from the seller's failure to execute his contract; if the stock cannot be thus purchased, a money damage is not an adequate remedy, the purchaser wants the stock and he can, through a court of equity, compel the seller to deliver it to him. As government bonds can always be bought in the open market, a court of equity will not decree the specific execution of a contract for the delivery of the actual bonds purchased.

If A has agreed to erect a building for B on his land and fails to do it, money damages are usually an adequate remedy, but if B cannot find any one else to do the work as well, or in as satisfactory manner, then a court of equity would compel A to fulfil his agreement.

Likewise if a landlord has agreed to repair his tenant's premises and neglects, the legal remedy is usually more satisfactory than a specific execution of the agreement, because work done under compulsion is not likely to be as well done as that done voluntarily.

A contract to render personal services will not be enforced against a person who has agreed to perform them, for several reasons, one is that another person can be employed, another is that the thirteenth amendment to the federal const.i.tution, forbidding involuntary servitude, cuts off the equitable remedy in such cases; of course the legal remedy for damages is still effective. A contract to give a mortgage to secure a loan of money may be enforced by the creditor, but a contract to lend money cannot be enforced by either party, because there is usually an open market for the lending and borrowing of money. Likewise a contract to form a partners.h.i.+p cannot be enforced, for, if it were, the unwilling partner could dissolve it and thus nullify the action of the court.

Where one sells out his business, whether commercial or professional, and agrees not to compete with the buyer, equity will compel the seller to observe his contract unless it was illegal or an unreasonable restraint on trade. This limitation is important. Thus A, a dentist in Philadelphia, agreed with B, another dentist, not to practice in the city for ten years a certain method of extracting teeth. A continued to practice as before and B applied to a court of equity to enjoin him. He failed for the reason that no one ought to have a monopoly, so the court said, in any means or method for relieving human suffering, like the process in dispute. If an employee agrees not to divulge the trade secrets of his employer, equity will enforce the agreement, for damages given in a law court would be wholly inadequate.

Another cla.s.s of cases must be mentioned relating to injuries to land.

By the common law the only relief a landowner had against one who injured it in any way was an action of waste to recover money damages.

A court of equity has power to issue a command to the person who threatens or attempts to commit injury ordering and directing him to desist from his purpose. This has been often used by the owners of land against their tenants who attempted to do things that would materially injure the property. This remedy is now often used to secure the owner and occupier of land in its proper use against those who attempt to commit a nuisance. While the occupier could recover damages if he sought the aid of a law court, equity will order the wrongdoer to abate the nuisance. Such a remedy is much more effective than the legal one, because damages that may be recovered relate only to a past offense, while the equitable one prevents it from happening or from its continuance.

Promises not to do some particular act on a piece of land are often made in deeds conveying them; they are called covenants. Equity will usually enforce these covenants, and will compel the wrongdoer to undo what he has done provided that relief is sought promptly. Thus if a purchaser agrees not to build nearer the street than a stated line, he can be enjoined from disregarding it. A purchaser therefore who built two houses three feet beyond the agreed line was compelled to remove them.