Encyclopaedia Britannica Volume 2, Slice 2 Part 7

ANOMALY (from Gr. [Greek: anomalia], unevenness, derived from [Greek: an-], privative, and [Greek: homalos], even), a deviation from the common rule. In astronomy the word denotes the angular distance of a body from the pericentre of the orbit in which it is moving. Let AB be the major axis of the orbit, B the pericentre, F the focus or centre of motion, P the position of the body. The anomaly is then the angle BFP which the radius vector makes with the major axis. This is the actual or _true anomaly_. _Mean anomaly_ is the anomaly which the body would have if it moved from the pericentre around F with a uniform angular motion such that its revolution would be completed in its actual time (see ORBIT). _Eccentric anomaly_ is defined thus:--Draw the circ.u.mscribing circle of the elliptic orbit around the centre C of the orbit. Drop the perpendicular RPQ through P, the position of the planet, upon the major axis. Join CR; the angle CRQ is then the eccentric anomaly.

[Ill.u.s.tration]

In the ancient astronomy the anomaly was taken as the angular distance of the planet from the point of the farthest recession from the earth.

_Kepler's Problem_, namely, that of finding the co-ordinates of a planet at a given time, which is equivalent--given the mean anomaly--to that of determining the true anomaly, was solved approximately by Kepler, and more completely by Wallis, Newton and others.

The anomalistic revolution of a planet or other heavenly body is the revolution between two consecutive pa.s.sages through the pericentre.

Starting from the pericentre, it is completed on the return to the pericentre. If the pericentre is fixed, this is an actual revolution; but if it moves the anomalistic revolution is greater or less than a complete circ.u.mference.

An _Anomalistic year_ is the time (365 days, 6 hours, 13 minutes, 48 seconds) in which the earth (and similarly for any other planet) pa.s.ses from perihelion to perihelion, or from any given value of the anomaly to the same again. Owing to the precession of the equinoxes it is longer than a tropical or sidereal year by 25 minutes and 2.3 seconds. An _Anomalistic month_ is the time in which the moon pa.s.ses from perigee to perigee, &c.

For the mathematics of Kepler's problem see E.W. Brown, _Lunar Theory_ (Cambridge 1896), or the work of Watson or of Bauschinger on Theoretical Astronomy.

ANORTHITE, an important mineral of the felspar group, being one of the end members of the plagioclase (q.v.) series. It is a calcium and aluminium silicate, CaAl2Si2O3, and crystallizes in the anorthic system.

Like all the felspars, it possesses two cleavages, one perfect and the other less so, here inclined to one another at an angle of 85 50'. The colour is white, greyish or reddish, and the crystals are transparent to translucent. The hardness is 6-6, and the specific gravity 2.75.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Anorthite]

Anorthite is an essential const.i.tuent of many basic igneous rocks, such as gabbro and basalt, also of some meteoric stones. The best developed crystals are those which accompany mica, augite, sanidine, &c., in the ejected blocks of metamorphosed limestone from Monte Somma, the ancient portion of Mount Vesuvius; these are perfectly colourless and transparent, and are bounded by numerous brilliant faces. Distinctly developed crystals are also met with in the basalts of j.a.pan, but are usually rare at other localities.

The name anorthite was given to the Vesuvian mineral by G. Rose in 1823, on account of its anorthic crystallization. The species had, however, been earlier described by the comte de Bournon under the name indianite, this name being applied to a greyish or reddish granular mineral forming the matrix of corundum from the Carnatic in India. Several unimportant varieties have been distinguished. (L. J. S.)

ANQUETIL, LOUIS PIERRE (1723-1808), French historian, was born in Paris, on the 21st of February 1723. He entered the congregation of Sainte-Genevieve, where he took holy orders and became professor of theology and literature. Later, he became director of the seminary at Reims, where he wrote his _Histoire civile et politique de Reims_ (3 vols., 1756-1757), perhaps his best work. He was then director of the college of Senlis, where he composed his _Esprit de la Ligue ou histoire politique des troubles de la Fronde pendant le XVI^e et le XVII^e siecles_ (1767). During the Reign of Terror he was imprisoned at St Lazare; there he began his _Precis de l'histoire universelle_, afterwards published in nine volumes. On the establishment of the national inst.i.tute he was elected a member of the second group (moral and political sciences), and was soon afterwards employed in the office of the ministry of foreign affairs, profiting by his experience to write his _Motifs des guerres et des traites de paix sous Louis XIV., Louis XV, et Louis XVI._ He is said to have been asked by Napoleon to write his _Histoire de France_ (14 vols., 1805), a mediocre compilation at second or third hand, with the a.s.sistance of de Mezeray and of Paul Francois Velly (1709-1759). This work, nevertheless, pa.s.sed through numerous editions, and by it his name is remembered. He died on the 6th of September 1808.

ANQUETIL, DUPERRON, ABRAHAM HYACINTHE (1731-1805), French orientalist, brother of Louis Pierre Anquetil, the historian, was born in Paris on the 7th of December 1731. He was educated for the priesthood in Paris and Utrecht, but his taste for Hebrew, Arabic, Persian, and other languages of the East developed into a pa.s.sion, and he discontinued his theological course to devote himself entirely to them. His diligent attendance at the Royal Library attracted the attention of the keeper of the ma.n.u.scripts, the Abbe Sallier, whose influence procured for him a small salary as student of the oriental languages. He had lighted on some fragments of the _Vendidad Sade_, and formed the project of a voyage to India to discover the works of Zoroaster. With this end in view he enlisted as a private soldier, on the 2nd of November 1754, in the Indian expedition which was about to start from the port of L'Orient. His friends procured his discharge, and he was granted a free pa.s.sage, a seat at the captain's table, and a salary, the amount of which was to be fixed by the governor of the French settlement in India.

After a pa.s.sage of six months, Anquetil landed, on the 10th of August 1755, at Pondicherry. Here he remained a short time to master modern Persian, and then hastened to Chandernagore to acquire Sanskrit. Just then war was declared between France and England; Chandernagore was taken, and Anquetil returned to Pondicherry by land. He found one of his brothers at Pondicherry, and embarked with him for Surat; but, with a view of exploring the country, he landed at Mahe and proceeded on foot.

At Surat he succeeded, by perseverance and address in his intercourse with the native priests, in acquiring a sufficient knowledge of the Zend and Pahlavi languages to translate the liturgy called the _Vendidad Sade_ and some other works. Thence he proposed going to Benares, to study the language, antiquities, and sacred laws of the Hindus; but the capture of Pondicherry obliged him to quit India. Returning to Europe in an English vessel, he spent some time in London and Oxford, and then set out for France. He arrived in Paris on the 14th of March 1762 in possession of one hundred and eighty oriental ma.n.u.scripts, besides other curiosities. The Abbe Barthelemy procured for him a pension, with the appointment of interpreter of oriental languages at the Royal Library.

In 1763 he was elected an a.s.sociate of the Academy of Inscriptions, and began to arrange for the publication of the materials he had collected during his eastern travels. In 1771 he published his _Zend-Avesta_ (3 vols.), containing collections from the sacred writings of the fire-wors.h.i.+ppers, a life of Zoroaster, and fragments of works ascribed to him. In 1778 he published at Amsterdam his _Legislation orientate_, in which he endeavoured to prove that the nature of oriental despotism had been greatly misrepresented. His _Recherches historiques et geographiques sur l'Inde_ appeared in 1786, and formed part of Thieffenthaler's _Geography of India_. The Revolution seems to have greatly affected him. During that period he abandoned society, and lived in voluntary poverty on a few pence a day. In 1798 he published _L'Inde en rapport avec l'Europe_ (Hamburg, 2 vols.), which contained much invective against the English, and numerous misrepresentations. In 1802-1804 he published a Latin translation (2 vols.) from the Persian of the _Oupnek'hat_ or _Upanishada_. It is a curious mixture of Latin, Greek, Persian, Arabic, and Sanskrit. He died in Paris on the 17th of January 1805.

See _Biographie universelle_; Sir William Jones, _Works_ (vol. x., 1807); and the _Miscellanies_ of the Philobiblon Society (vol. iii., 1856-1857). For a list of his scattered writings see Querard, _La France litteraire_.

ANSA (from Lat. _ansa_, a handle), in astronomy, one of the apparent ends of the rings of Saturn as seen in perspective from the earth: so-called because, in the earlier telescopes, they looked like handles projecting from the planet. In anatomy the word is applied to nervous structures which resemble loops. In archaeology it is used for the engraved and ornamented handle of a vase, which has often survived when the vase itself, being less durable, has disappeared.

ANSBACH, or ANs.p.a.cH, originally _Onolzbach_, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the Rezat, 27 m. by rail S.W. of Nuremberg, and 90 m. N. of Munich. Pop. (1900) 17,555. It contains a palace, once the residence of the margraves of Ans.p.a.ch, with fine gardens, several churches, the finest of which are those dedicated to St John, containing the vault of the former margraves, and St Gumbert; a gymnasium; a picture gallery; a munic.i.p.al museum and a special technical school.

Ansbach possesses monuments to the poets August, Count von Platen-Hallermund, and Johann Peter Uz, who were born here, and to Kaspar Hauser, who died here. The chief manufactures are machinery, toys, woollen, cotton, and half-silk stuffs, embroideries, earthenware, tobacco, cutlery and playing cards. There is considerable trade in grain, wool and flax. In 1791 the last margrave of Ans.p.a.ch sold his princ.i.p.ality to Frederick William II., king of Prussia; it was transferred by Napoleon to Bavaria in 1806, an act which was confirmed by the congress of Vienna in 1815.

ANSDELL, RICHARD (1815-1885), English painter, was born in Liverpool, and first exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1840. He was a painter of genre, chiefly animal and sporting pictures, and he became very popular, being elected A.R.A. in 1861 and R.A. in 1870. His "Stag at Bay" (1846), "The Combat" (1847), and "Battle of the Standard" (1848), represent his best work, in which he showed himself a notable follower of Landseer.

ANSELM (c. 1033-1109), archbishop of Canterbury, was born at Aosta in Piedmont. His family was accounted n.o.ble, and was possessed of considerable property. Gundulph, his father, was by birth a Lombard, and seems to have been a man of harsh and violent temper; his mother, Ermenberga, was a prudent and virtuous woman, from whose careful religious training the young Anselm derived much benefit. At the age of fifteen he desired to enter a convent, but he could not obtain his father's consent. Disappointment brought on an illness, on his recovery from which he seems for a time to have given up his studies, and to have plunged into the gay life of the world. During this time his mother died, and his father's harshness became unbearable. He left home, and with only one attendant crossed the Alps, and wandered through Burgundy and France. Attracted by the fame of his countryman, Lanfranc, then prior of Bec, he entered Normandy, and, after spending some time at Avranches, settled at the monastery of Bec. There, at the age of twenty-seven, he became a monk; three years later, when Lanfranc was promoted to the abbacy of Caen, he was elected prior. This office he held for fifteen years, and then, in 1078, on the death of Herlwin, the warrior monk who had founded the monastery, he was made abbot. Under his rule Bec became the first seat of learning in Europe, a result due not more to his intellectual powers than to the great moral influence of his n.o.ble character and kindly discipline. It was during these quiet years at Bec that Anselm wrote his first philosophical and religious works, the dialogues on Truth and Freewill, and the two celebrated treatises, the _Monologion_ and _Proslogion_.

Meanwhile the convent had been growing in wealth, as well as in reputation, and had acquired considerable property in England, which it became the duty of Anselm occasionally to visit. By his mildness of temper and unswerving rect.i.tude, he so endeared himself to the English that he was looked upon and desired as the natural successor to Lanfranc, then archbishop of Canterbury. But on the death of that great man, the ruling sovereign, William Rufus, seized the possessions and revenues of the see, and made no new appointment. About four years after, in 1092, on the invitation of Hugh, earl of Chester, Anselm with some reluctance, for he feared to be made archbishop, crossed to England. He was detained by business for nearly four months, and when about to return, was refused permission by the king. In the following year William fell ill, and thought his death was at hand. Eager to make atonement for his sin with regard to the archbishopric, he nominated Anselm to the vacant see, and after a great struggle compelled him to accept the pastoral staff of office. After obtaining dispensation from his duties in Normandy, Anselm was consecrated in 1093. He demanded of the king, as the conditions of his retaining office, that he should give up all the possessions of the see, accept his spiritual counsel, and acknowledge Urban as pope in opposition to the anti-pope, Clement. He only obtained a partial consent to the first of these, and the last involved him in a serious difficulty with the king. It was a rule of the church that the consecration of metropolitans could not be completed without their receiving the _pallium_ from the hands of the pope.

Anselm, accordingly, insisted that he must proceed to Rome to receive the pall. But William would not permit this; he had not acknowledged Urban, and he maintained his right to prevent any pope being acknowledged by an English subject without his permission. A great council of churchmen and n.o.bles, held to settle the matter, advised Anselm to submit to the king, but failed to overcome his mild and patient firmness. The matter was postponed, and William meanwhile privately sent messengers to Rome, who acknowledged Urban and prevailed on him to send a legate to the king bearing the archiepiscopal pall. A partial reconciliation was then effected, and the matter of the pall was compromised. It was not given by the king, but was laid on the altar at Canterbury, whence Anselm took it.

Little more than a year after, fresh trouble arose with the king, and Anselm resolved to proceed to Rome and seek the counsel of his spiritual father. With great difficulty he obtained a reluctant permission to leave, and in October 1097 he set out for Rome. William immediately seized on the revenues of the see, and retained them to his death.

Anselm was received with high honour by Urban, and at a great council held at Bari, he was put forward to defend the doctrine of the procession of the Holy Ghost against the representatives of the Greek Church. But Urban was too politic to embroil himself with the king of England, and Anselm found that he could obtain no substantial result. He withdrew from Rome, and spent some time at the little village of Schiavi, where he finished his treatise on the atonement, _Cur Deus h.o.m.o_, and then retired to Lyons.

In 1100 William was killed, and Henry, his successor, at once recalled Anselm. But Henry demanded that he should again receive from him in person invest.i.ture in his office of archbishop, thus making the dignity entirely dependent on the royal authority. Now, the papal rule in the matter was plain; all homage and lay invest.i.ture were strictly prohibited. Anselm represented this to the king; but Henry would not relinquish a privilege possessed by his predecessors, and proposed that the matter should be laid before the Holy See. The answer of the pope reaffirmed the law as to invest.i.ture. A second emba.s.sy was sent, with a similar result. Henry, however, remained firm, and at last, in 1103, Anselm and an envoy from the king set out for Rome. The pope, Paschal, reaffirmed strongly the rule of invest.i.ture, and pa.s.sed sentence of excommunication against all who had infringed the law, except Henry.

Practically this left matters as they were, and Anselm, who had received a message forbidding him to return to England unless on the king's terms, withdrew to Lyons, where he waited to see if Paschal would not take stronger measures. At last, in 1105, he resolved himself to excommunicate Henry. His intention was made known to the king through his sister, and it seriously alarmed him, for it was a critical period in his affairs. A meeting was arranged, and a reconciliation between them effected. In 1106 Anselm crossed to England, with power from the pope to remove the sentence of excommunication from the illegally invested churchmen. In 1107 the long dispute as to invest.i.ture was finally ended by the king resigning his formal rights. The remaining two years of Anselm's life were spent in the duties of his archbishopric. He died on the 21st of April 1109. He was canonized in 1494 by Alexander VI.

Anselm may, with some justice, be considered the first scholastic philosopher and theologian. His only great predecessor, Scotus Erigena, had more of the speculative and mystical element than is consistent with a schoolman; but in Anselm are found that recognition of the relation of reason to revealed truth, and that attempt to elaborate a rational system of faith, which form the special characteristics of scholastic thought. His constant endeavour is to render the contents of the Christian consciousness clear to reason, and to develop the intelligible truths interwoven with the Christian belief. The necessary preliminary for this is the possession of the Christian consciousness. "He who does not believe will not experience; and he who has not experienced will not understand." That faith must precede knowledge is reiterated by him.

_"Negue enim quaero intelligere ut credam, sed credo ut intelligam. Nam et hoc credo, quia, nisi credidero, non intelligam."_ ("Nor do I seek to understand that I may believe, but I believe that I may understand. For this too I believe, that unless I first believe, I shall not understand.") But after the faith is held fast, the attempt must be made to demonstrate by reason the truth of what we believe. It is wrong not to do so. _"Negligentiae mihi esse videtur, si, postquam confirmati sumus in fide, non studemus quod credimus, intelligere."_ ("I hold it to be a failure in duty if after we have become steadfast in the faith we do not strive to understand what we believe.") To such an extent does he carry this demand for rational explanation that, at times, it seems as if he claimed for una.s.sisted intelligence the power of penetrating even to the mysteries of the Christian faith. On the whole, however, the qualified statement is his real view; merely rational proofs are always, he affirms, to be tested by Scripture. (_Cur Deus h.o.m.o_, i. 2 and 38; _De Fide Trin_. 2.)

The groundwork of his theory of knowledge is contained in the tract _De Veritate_, in which, from the consideration of truth as in knowledge, in willing, and in things, he rises to the affirmation of an absolute truth, in which all other truth partic.i.p.ates. This absolute truth is G.o.d himself, who is therefore the ultimate ground or principle both of things and of thought. The notion of G.o.d comes thus into the foreground of the system; before all things it is necessary that it should be made clear to reason, that it should be demonstrated to have real existence.

This demonstration is the substance of the _Monologion_ and _Proslogion_. In the first of these the proof rests on the ordinary grounds of realism, and coincides to some extent with the earlier theory of Augustine, though it is carried out with singular boldness and fulness. Things, he says, are called good in a variety of ways and degrees; this would be impossible if there were not some absolute standard, some good in itself, in which all relative goods partic.i.p.ate.

Similarly with such predicates as great, just; they involve a certain greatness and justice. The very existence of things is impossible without some one Being, by whom they are. This absolute Being, this goodness, justice, greatness, is G.o.d. Anselm was not thoroughly satisfied with this reasoning; it started from _a posteriori grounds_, and contained several converging lines of proof. He desired to have some one short demonstration. Such a demonstration he presented in the _Proslogion_; it is his celebrated ontological proof. G.o.d is that being than whom none greater can be conceived. Now, if that than which nothing greater can be conceived existed only in the intellect, it would not be the absolutely greatest, for we could add to it existence in reality. It follows, then, that the being than whom nothing greater can be conceived, i.e. G.o.d, necessarily has real existence. This reasoning, in which Anselm partially antic.i.p.ated the Cartesian philosophers, has rarely seemed satisfactory. It was opposed at the time by the monk Gaunilo, in his _Liber pro Insipiente_, on the ground that we cannot pa.s.s from idea to reality. The same criticism is made by several of the later schoolmen, among others by Aquinas, and is in substance what Kant advances against all ontological proof. Anselm replied to the objections of Gaunilo in his _Liber Apologeticus_. The existence of G.o.d being thus held proved, he proceeds to state the rational grounds of the Christian doctrines of creation and of the Trinity. With reference to this last, he says we cannot know G.o.d from himself, but only after the a.n.a.logy of his creatures; and the special a.n.a.logy used is the self-consciousness of man, its peculiar double nature, with the necessary elements, memory and intelligence, representing the relation of the Father to the Son. The mutual love of these two, proceeding from the relation they hold to one another, symbolizes the Holy Spirit. The further theological doctrines of man, original sin, free will, are developed, partly in the _Monologion_, partly in other mixed treatises. Finally, in his greatest work, _Cur Deus h.o.m.o_, he undertakes to make plain, even to infidels, the rational necessity of the Christian mystery of the atonement. The theory rests on three positions: that satisfaction is necessary on account of G.o.d's honour and justice; that such satisfaction can be given only by the peculiar personality of the G.o.d-man; that such satisfaction is really given by the voluntary death of this infinitely valuable person. The demonstration is, in brief, this. All the actions of men are due to the furtherance of G.o.d's glory; if, then, there be sin, i.e. if G.o.d's honour be wounded, man of himself can give no satisfaction. But the justice of G.o.d demands satisfaction; and as an insult to infinite honour is in itself infinite, the satisfaction must be infinite, i.e. it must outweigh all that is not G.o.d. Such a penalty can only be paid by G.o.d himself, and, as a penalty for man, must be paid under the form of man. Satisfaction is only possible through the G.o.d-man. Now this G.o.d-man, as sinless, is exempt from the punishment of sin; His pa.s.sion is therefore voluntary, not given as due. The merit of it is therefore infinite; G.o.d's justice is thus appeased, and His mercy may extend to man. This theory has exercised immense influence on the form of church doctrine. It is certainly an advance on the older patristic theory, in so far as it subst.i.tutes for a contest between G.o.d and Satan, a contest between the goodness and justice of G.o.d; but it puts the whole relation on a merely legal footing, gives it no ethical bearing, and neglects altogether the consciousness of the individual to be redeemed. In this respect it contrasts unfavourably with the later theory of Abelard.

Anselm's speculations did not receive, in the middle ages, the respect and attention justly their due. This was probably due to their unsystematic character, for they are generally tracts or dialogues on detached questions, not elaborate treatises like the great works of Albert, Aquinas, and Erigena. They have, however, a freshness and philosophical vigour, which more than makes up for their want of system, and which raises them far above the level of most scholastic writings.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The main sources for the history of St Anselm and his times are Eadmer's _Vita Anselmi_ and his _Historia Novorum_, edited by M. Rule in _Rolls Series_ (London, 1884); the best modern work is by Pere Ragey, _Histoire de Saint Anselme_ (Paris, 1890), and _Saint Anselme professeur_ (Paris, 1890). Other appreciations are by A.

Mohler, _Anselm Erzbischof von Canterbury_ (Regensburg, 1839; Eng.

trans. by H. Rymer, London, 1842); F.R. Ha.s.se, _Anselm von Canterbury_ (2 vols., Leipzig, 1842-1853); C. de Remusat, _S. Anseime de Cantorbery_ (Paris, 1853, new ed. 1868); R.W. Church, _St Anselm_, first published in _Sunday Library_ (London, 1870; often reprinted); Martin Rule, _Life and Times of St Anselm_ (London, 1883).

_Works_: The best edition of St Anselm's complete works is that of Dom Gerberon (Paris, 1675); reprinted with many notes in 1712; incorporated by J. Migne in his _Patrologia Latina_, tomi clviii.-clix. (Paris. 1853-1854). Migne's reprint contains many errors. The _Cur Deus h.o.m.o_ may be best studied in the editions published by D. Nutt (London, 1885) and by Griffith (1898). The _Mariale_, or poems in honour of the Blessed Virgin, has been carefully edited by P. Ragey (Tournai, 1885); the _Monologion_ and _Proslogion_, by C.E. Ubaghs (Louvain, 1854; Eng. trans. by S.N.

Deane, Chicago, 1903); the _Meditationes_, many of which are wrongly attributed to Anselm, have been frequently reprinted, and were included in Methuen's _Library of Devotion_ (London, 1903).

The best criticism of Anselm's philosophical works is by J.M. Rigg (London, 1896), and Domet de Verges (_Grands Philosophes_ series, Paris, 1901). For a complete bibliography, see A. Vacant's _Dictionnaire de theologie_.

ANSELM, of Laon (d. 1117), French theologian, was born of very humble parents at Laon before the middle of the 11th century. He is said to have studied under St Anselm at Bec. About 1076 he taught with great success at Paris, where, as the a.s.sociate of William of Champeaux, he upheld the realistic side of the scholastic controversy. Later he removed to his native place, where his school for theology and exegetics rapidly became the most famous in Europe. He died in 1117. His greatest work, an interlinear gloss on the Scriptures, was one of the great authorities of the middle ages. It has been frequently reprinted. Other commentaries apparently by him have been ascribed to various writers, princ.i.p.ally to the great Anselm. A list of them, with notice of Anselm's life, is contained in the _Histoire litteraire de la France_, x.

170-189.

The works are collected in Migne's _Patrologia Latina_, tome 162; some unpublished _Sententiae_ were edited by G. Lefevre (Milan, 1894), on which see Haureau in the _Journal des savants_ for 1895.