The Origins Of Political Order Part 18

14.Eastern India is inhabited by groups speaking Austro-Asiatic languages such as Mundari and Mon-Khmer, which are also spoken throughout Southeast Asia. This group represents populations that inhabited the subcontinent before the arrival of conquerors like the Indo-Aryans. They survive today in little pockets in forested or otherwise inaccessible parts of the country, and some are still tribally organized. Their kins.h.i.+p rules are quite varied and represent a complex mixture of ancient patterns and more recent influences from the surrounding society. Ibid., p. 72.

15.Arthur L. Basham, The Wonder That Was India: A Survey of the Culture of the Indian Sub-Continent Before the Coming of the Muslims The Wonder That Was India: A Survey of the Culture of the Indian Sub-Continent Before the Coming of the Muslims (London: Sidgwick and Jackson, 1954), p. 81. (London: Sidgwick and Jackson, 1954), p. 81.

16.Ibid., p. 82.

17.Thapar, Early India Early India, p. 112.

18.Thapar, From Lineage to State From Lineage to State, p. 155.

19.Thapar, Early India Early India, p. 117.

20.Thapar, From Lineage to State From Lineage to State, p. 158.

21.Thapar, Early India Early India, p. 144.

22.Ibid., pp. 12122.

23.Ibid., pp. 13738.

24.Ram S. Sharma, Aspects of Political Ideas and Inst.i.tutions in Ancient India Aspects of Political Ideas and Inst.i.tutions in Ancient India (Delhi: Motilal Banarsida.s.s, 1968), p. 159. (Delhi: Motilal Banarsida.s.s, 1968), p. 159.

25.One of those turtles resting on turtles of prior historical causality is why the early Indian tribes, chiefdoms, and states fought fewer wars than their Chinese counterparts. One explanation could be environmental, if indeed the population of northern India was less dense and less circ.u.mscribed than the population of China during the Eastern Zhou. But it is possible that religion played a role here as well, by somehow inhibiting the Indian states' ability and motivation to wage war.

11: VARNAS AND JATIS.

1.Gary S. Becker, "n.o.bel Lecture: The Economic Way of Looking at Behavior," Journal of Political Economy Journal of Political Economy 101, no. 3 (1993): 385409. 101, no. 3 (1993): 385409.

2.Basham, The Wonder That Was India The Wonder That Was India, p. 241.

3.Max Weber, The Religion of India: The Sociology of Hinduism and Buddhism The Religion of India: The Sociology of Hinduism and Buddhism (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1958), p. 131. (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1958), p. 131.

4.Gould, The Hindu Caste System The Hindu Caste System, p. 15.

5.Ibid., pp. 1516; Martin Doornbos and Sudipta Kaviraj, Dynamics of State Formation: India and Europe Compared Dynamics of State Formation: India and Europe Compared (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1997), p. 37. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1997), p. 37.

6.Louis Dumont, h.o.m.o Hierarchicus: The Caste System and Its Implications h.o.m.o Hierarchicus: The Caste System and Its Implications (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), p. 150. Other sects, most notably the Jains, carry the principle of ahimsa, or nonviolence, and the noneating of meat much further than orthodox Hindus, avoiding even the possibility of killing insects. Dumont attributes this to the emergence of something like an arms race between sects of renouncers like the Jains and the Brahmins, who sought to outdo each other with regard to ritual purity. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), p. 150. Other sects, most notably the Jains, carry the principle of ahimsa, or nonviolence, and the noneating of meat much further than orthodox Hindus, avoiding even the possibility of killing insects. Dumont attributes this to the emergence of something like an arms race between sects of renouncers like the Jains and the Brahmins, who sought to outdo each other with regard to ritual purity.

7.Thapar, Early India Early India, p. 124.

8.Thapar, From Lineage to State From Lineage to State, pp. 16970.

9.Dumont, h.o.m.o Hierarchicus h.o.m.o Hierarchicus, p. 176.

10.This a.s.sertion is often a.s.sociated with Louis Dumont, who argued that caste arises out of religion based on a hierarchical ranking of grades of purity, which is separate from a secular realm of power. This view has been heavily criticized from a number of perspectives, particularly by Ronald Inden, who argued that Dumont was importing Western dichotomies and imposing them on a society for which they were not appropriate. Others have argued against the view that the Brahmins ranked higher than the Kshatriyas; they were, rather, two sides of an integrated religious-political system. Others have gone so far as to suggest that caste itself was not that important in Indian history but was deliberately constructed by British colonial authorities for their own political purposes.

The separation of political and religious realms may be a normative preference in modern Western societies, but the idea that political and religious authority can be separated as a.n.a.lytical categories does not reflect a Western prejudice or bias. These forms of authority can be either separated or melded in a variety of ways in different societies, but without the existence of the categories themselves, it would be impossible to compare India to China or to the Middle East. The critique of Dumont seems rather to reflect a parochial bias of Indologists who are not in the habit of comparing India to other societies. See Ronald B. Inden, Imagining India Imagining India (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000); Gloria Goodwin Raheja, "India: Caste, Kings.h.i.+p, and Dominance Revisited," (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000); Gloria Goodwin Raheja, "India: Caste, Kings.h.i.+p, and Dominance Revisited," Annual Review of Anthropology Annual Review of Anthropology 17 (1988): 497522; V. Kondos, "A Piece on Justice: Some Reactions to Dumont's 17 (1988): 497522; V. Kondos, "A Piece on Justice: Some Reactions to Dumont's h.o.m.o Hierarchicus h.o.m.o Hierarchicus," South Asia South Asia 21, no. 1 (1998): 3347; William S. Sax, "Conquering Quarters: Religion and Politics in Hinduism," 21, no. 1 (1998): 3347; William S. Sax, "Conquering Quarters: Religion and Politics in Hinduism," International Journal of Hindu Studies International Journal of Hindu Studies 4, no. 1 (2000): 3960; Rohan Bastin, "Death of the Indian Social," 4, no. 1 (2000): 3960; Rohan Bastin, "Death of the Indian Social," Social a.n.a.lysis Social a.n.a.lysis 48, no. 3 (2004): 20513; Mary Searle-Chatterjee and Ursula Sharma, eds., 48, no. 3 (2004): 20513; Mary Searle-Chatterjee and Ursula Sharma, eds., Contextualising Caste: Post-Dumontian Approaches Contextualising Caste: Post-Dumontian Approaches (Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1994); and Nicholas B. Dirks, (Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1994); and Nicholas B. Dirks, The Invention of Caste: Civil Society in Colonial India The Invention of Caste: Civil Society in Colonial India (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, CSST Working Paper 11, 1988). (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, CSST Working Paper 11, 1988).

11.Gould, The Hindu Caste System The Hindu Caste System, p. 19.

12.Sharma, Aspects of Political Ideas and Inst.i.tutions in Ancient India Aspects of Political Ideas and Inst.i.tutions in Ancient India, pp. 16162.

13.Basham, The Wonder That Was India The Wonder That Was India, p. 128.

14.Ibid., p. 129.

15.Ibid., pp. 12930.

16.Joel Migdal, Strong Societies and Weak States: State-Society Relations and State Capabilities in the Third World Strong Societies and Weak States: State-Society Relations and State Capabilities in the Third World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988). (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988).

17.Dumont, h.o.m.o Hierarchicus h.o.m.o Hierarchicus, pp. 15859.

18.As Louis Dumont points out, it was neither democratic nor secular but reflected the relations.h.i.+ps of power and dominance that are inherent in the system of jatis. Ibid., pp. 15863; see also Thapar, From Lineage to State From Lineage to State, pp. 16465.

19.Satish Saberwal, Wages of Segmentation: Comparative Historical Studies on Europe and India Wages of Segmentation: Comparative Historical Studies on Europe and India (New Delhi: Orient Longman, 1995), pp. 2729. (New Delhi: Orient Longman, 1995), pp. 2729.

20.Ibid., p. 26.

21.Ibid., p. 25.

22.V. S. Naipaul, India: A Wounded Civilization India: A Wounded Civilization (New York: Vintage, 1978). (New York: Vintage, 1978).

23.In 2004, more than 34 percent of India's population lived on less than $1 a day. Shaohua Chen and Martin Ravallion, "Absolute Poverty Measures for the Developing World, 19812004" (Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C.: World Bank Policy Research Working Paper WPS4211, 2007), p. 26.

24.Saberwal, Wages of Segmentation Wages of Segmentation, p. 113.

25.Ibid., pp. 11416.

26.Frank Perlin, "State Formation Reconsidered Part Two," Modern Asian Studies Modern Asian Studies 19, no. 3 (1985): 434. 19, no. 3 (1985): 434.

27.Sharma, Aspects of Political Ideas Aspects of Political Ideas, pp. 15960.

28.Quoted in Sudipta Kaviraj, "On the Enchantment of the State: Indian Thought on the Role of the State in the Narrative of Modernity," European Journal of Sociology European Journal of Sociology 46, no. 2 (2005): 26396. 46, no. 2 (2005): 26396.

29.Basham, The Wonder That Was India The Wonder That Was India, p. 87.

12: WEAKNESSES OF INDIAN POLITIES.

1.Thapar, Early India Early India, p. 152.

2.Ibid., p. 156; Basham, The Wonder That Was India The Wonder That Was India, p. 131.

3.Thapar, Early India Early India, pp. 17879.

4.Wolpert, A New History of India A New History of India, pp. 5569. The present-day Republic of India includes the far south and states in the east such as a.s.sam that weren't included in the Mauryan empire, but does not include Pakistan and Bangladesh, the larger parts of which were.

5.For an overview, see Hermann Kulke, "Introduction: The Study of the State in Premodern India," in Kulke, ed., The State in India 10001700 The State in India 10001700 (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1995). (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1995).

6.Sharma, Aspects of Political Ideas and Inst.i.tutions Aspects of Political Ideas and Inst.i.tutions, pp. 28687. Sharma argues that while the Mauryan state "may not be regarded rational in the modern sense of the term ... it is not patrimonial either for it was not a part of the royal household." This is true under only the narrowest of definitions of patrimonialism. See also Thapar, Early India Early India, who calculates the ratio of wages to be only 1:96 (p. 195).

7.Sharma, Aspects of Political Ideas Aspects of Political Ideas, pp. 16566.

8.Perlin, "State Formation Reconsidered."

9.Basham, The Wonder That Was India The Wonder That Was India, pp. 9394.

10.Thapar, Early India Early India, p. 206.

11.Some of these tribal groups, such as the Vrjjis, were defeated and incorporated into the Magadhan Empire, while in the west more survived, where they were encountered by Alexander the Great. In the mountainous areas of the northwest fringes of the empire-now eastern Afghanistan-these tribes still exist in the early twenty-first century, where they have battled NATO forces. Basham, The Wonder That Was India The Wonder That Was India, pp. 9697; Sharma, Aspects of Political Ideas Aspects of Political Ideas, pp. 28182; Thapar, Early India Early India, p. 204.

12.Thapar, Early India Early India, pp. 18587; Sharma, Aspects of Political Ideas Aspects of Political Ideas, pp. 28889.

13.Thapar, Early India Early India, p. 189.

14.Doornbos and Kaviraj, Dynamics of State Formation Dynamics of State Formation, p. 93.

15.Thapar, Early India Early India, p. 178.

16.Quoted in Hemchandra Raychaudhuri, Political History of Ancient India: From the Accession of Pariks.h.i.+t to the Extinction of the Gupta Dynasty Political History of Ancient India: From the Accession of Pariks.h.i.+t to the Extinction of the Gupta Dynasty (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1996), pp. 28890. See also Thapar, (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1996), pp. 28890. See also Thapar, Early India Early India, p. 181.

17.Thapar, Early India Early India, p. 219.

18.Burton Stein, "State Formation and Economy Reconsidered," Modern Asian Studies Modern Asian Studies 19, no. 3 (1985): 387413. 19, no. 3 (1985): 387413.

19.The weak level of integration of the Chola state led one historian to describe it as "segmentary," built around a small, centrally administered nucleus, but claiming nominal dominion over a much larger number of self-governing, autonomous settlements around its periphery. See Burton Stein, "Integration of the Agrarian System of South India," in Robert E. Frykenberg, ed., Land Control and Social Structure in Indian History Land Control and Social Structure in Indian History (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1969). Stein compared the south Indian state to the prestate, segmentary tribal society of the Alurs in Africa. (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1969). Stein compared the south Indian state to the prestate, segmentary tribal society of the Alurs in Africa.

20.Wolpert, A New History of India A New History of India, pp. 8894.

21.Kaviraj, "On the Enchantment of the State," p. 270.

22.Ibid., p. 273.

23.Sunil Khilnani, The Idea of India The Idea of India (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1998). (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1998).

24.See, for example, Bill Emmott, Rivals: How the Power Struggle Between China, India, and j.a.pan Will Shape Our Next Decade Rivals: How the Power Struggle Between China, India, and j.a.pan Will Shape Our Next Decade (New York: Harcourt, 2008); Edward Friedman and Bruce Gilley, eds., (New York: Harcourt, 2008); Edward Friedman and Bruce Gilley, eds., Asia's Giants: Comparing China and India Asia's Giants: Comparing China and India (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005); Tarun Khanna, (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005); Tarun Khanna, Billions of Entrepreneurs: How China and India Are Reshaping Their Futures-and Yours Billions of Entrepreneurs: How China and India Are Reshaping Their Futures-and Yours (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 2008). (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 2008).

25.Somini Sengupta, "Often Parched, India Struggles to Tap the Monsoon," New York Times New York Times, October 1, 2006.

26.Amartya K. Sen, Development as Freedom Development as Freedom (New York: Knopf, 1999), pp. 23440. (New York: Knopf, 1999), pp. 23440.

27.Kaviraj, "On the Enchantment of the State," pp. 227, 230.

28.Ibid., p. 230.

13: SLAVERY AND THE MUSLIM EXIT FROM TRIBALISM.

1.I use phonetic Roman rather than modern Turkish spelling; hence devs.h.i.+rme devs.h.i.+rme rather than rather than dev devirme, and sanjak sanjak rather than rather than sancak sancak.

2.Albert H. Lybyer, The Government of the Ottoman Empire in the Time of Suleiman the Magnificent The Government of the Ottoman Empire in the Time of Suleiman the Magnificent (New York: AMS Press, 1978), pp. 4953; Norman Itzkowitz, (New York: AMS Press, 1978), pp. 4953; Norman Itzkowitz, Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition (New York: Knopf, 1972), pp. 4950. (New York: Knopf, 1972), pp. 4950.

3.Itzkowitz, Ottoman Empire Ottoman Empire, pp. 5152.

4.This was particularly true after 1574, when the Ottoman Empire conquered Tunis and put North Africa under Muslim rule. See William H. McNeill, Europe's Steppe Frontier, 15001800 Europe's Steppe Frontier, 15001800 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964), p. 29; Halil Inalcik, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964), p. 29; Halil Inalcik, The Ottoman Empire: The Cla.s.sical Age, 13001600 The Ottoman Empire: The Cla.s.sical Age, 13001600 (New Roch.e.l.le, NY: Orpheus Publis.h.i.+ng Co., 1989), pp. 8687. (New Roch.e.l.le, NY: Orpheus Publis.h.i.+ng Co., 1989), pp. 8687.

5.Patrick B. Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire (New York: William Morrow, 1977), pp. 45371. (New York: William Morrow, 1977), pp. 45371.

6.Daniel Pipes, Slave-Soldiers and Islam: The Genesis of a Military System Slave-Soldiers and Islam: The Genesis of a Military System (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981), pp. 9398. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981), pp. 9398.

7.Ibn Khaldun, The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History, as quoted in Bernard Lewis, ed. and trans., Islam from the Prophet Muhammad to the Capture of Constantinople. I: Politics and War Islam from the Prophet Muhammad to the Capture of Constantinople. I: Politics and War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), pp. 97ff. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), pp. 97ff.

8.Donner, The Early Islamic Conquests The Early Islamic Conquests, pp. 8285; Marshall G. S. Hodgson, The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961), pp. 19798. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961), pp. 19798.

9.For a detailed account of these conquests, see Hugh N. Kennedy, The Great Arab Conquests: How the Spread of Islam Changed the World We Live In The Great Arab Conquests: How the Spread of Islam Changed the World We Live In (Philadelphia: Da Capo, 2007). (Philadelphia: Da Capo, 2007).

10.Donner, The Early Islamic Conquests The Early Islamic Conquests, pp. 23942; Peter M. Holt, Ann K. S. Lambton, and Bernard Lewis, eds., The Cambridge History of Islam The Cambridge History of Islam. Vol. I: The Central Islamic Lands The Central Islamic Lands (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1970), pp. 6465. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1970), pp. 6465.

11.Fred M. Donner, "The Formation of the Islamic State," Journal of the American Oriental Society Journal of the American Oriental Society 106, no. 2 (1986): 28396. 106, no. 2 (1986): 28396.

12.See, for example, Dougla.s.s C. North, Barry R. Weingast, and John Wallis, Violence and Social Orders: A Conceptual Framework for Interpreting Recorded Human History Violence and Social Orders: A Conceptual Framework for Interpreting Recorded Human History (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009), who tend to see the state as a collective action problem among a group of relatively equal oligarchs. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009), who tend to see the state as a collective action problem among a group of relatively equal oligarchs.

13.One of the practical consequences of this was that monarchs often intervened to lower lower the predatory taxes imposed by local elites on their dependent populations. Hodgson, the predatory taxes imposed by local elites on their dependent populations. Hodgson, The Venture of Islam The Venture of Islam, pp. 28182; Donner, "The Formation of the Islamic State," pp. 29091.

14.See Bernard Lewis, "Politics and War," in Schacht, The Legacy of Islam The Legacy of Islam, pp. 16465.

15.Holt, Cambridge History of Islam Cambridge History of Islam, p. 72.

16.Donner, The Early Islamic Conquests The Early Islamic Conquests, p. 258.

17.Ibid., p. 263.

18.For general background, see David Ayalon, Islam and the Abode of War: Military Slaves and Islamic Adversaries Islam and the Abode of War: Military Slaves and Islamic Adversaries (Brookfield, VT: Variorum, 1994). (Brookfield, VT: Variorum, 1994).

19.On the rise of the Abbasids, see Hugh N. Kennedy, When Baghdad Ruled the Muslim World: The Rise and Fall of Islam's Greatest Dynasty When Baghdad Ruled the Muslim World: The Rise and Fall of Islam's Greatest Dynasty (Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 2006); also Hodgson, (Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 2006); also Hodgson, The Venture of Islam The Venture of Islam, p. 284.

20.Hodgson, The Venture of Islam The Venture of Islam, p. 286.

21.Quoted in Ayalon, Islam and the Abode of War Islam and the Abode of War, p. 2.

22.David Ayalon, Outsiders in the Lands of Islam: Mamluks, Mongols, and Eunuchs Outsiders in the Lands of Islam: Mamluks, Mongols, and Eunuchs (London: Variorum, 1988), p. 325. (London: Variorum, 1988), p. 325.

23.Holt, Cambridge History of Islam Cambridge History of Islam, p. 125.

24.Quoted in Ayalon, Islam and the Abode of War Islam and the Abode of War, p. 25.

25.Ibid., p. 29; Holt, Cambridge History of Islam Cambridge History of Islam, pp. 12526.

26.Plato, Republic Republic, trans. Allan Bloom (New York: Basic Books, 1968), 464cd.

14: THE MAMLUKS SAVE ISLAM.