Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers Part 4

Each 20-ft. division of the gallery is further equipped with an exterior circulating system, as shown by Fig. 1, thus providing an efficient method of mixing the gas with the air. For the first division this circulating system is stationary, a portion of the piping being equipped with heating coils for maintaining a constant temperature.

The other divisions have a common circulating system mounted on a truck which may be used on any of these divisions. Valves are provided for isolating the fan so that a possible explosion will not injure it.

In the center section of each division is an indicator c.o.c.k which is used to provide means of recording pressures above and below atmospheric, or of sampling the air-and-gas mixture. The first division of the gallery is equipped with shelves laterally placed, for the support of coal dust.

The cannon in which the explosive is fired is placed in the concrete head, the axial line of the bore-hole being coincident with that of the gallery. This cannon (Fig. 2) is similar to that used in the ballistic pendulum. The charge is fired electrically from the observation room. To minimize the risk of loading the cannon, the charger carries in his pocket the plug of a stage switch (the only plug of its kind on the ground), so that it is impossible to complete the circuit until the charger has left the gallery. That portion of the first division of the gallery which is not embedded in concrete, has a 3-in. covering made up of blocks of magnesia, asbestos fiber, asbestos, cement, a thin layer of 8-oz. duck, and strips of water-proof roofing paper, the whole being covered with a thick coat of graphite paint. The object of this covering is to a.s.sist in maintaining a constant temperature.

[Ill.u.s.tration: PLATE VII.

Fig. 1.--b.i.+.c.hel Pressure Gauges.

Fig. 2.--Rate of Detonation Recorder.]

The entire gallery rests on a concrete foundation 10 ft. wide, which has a maximum height of 4 ft. and a minimum height of 2 ft.

The concrete head in which the cannon is placed completely closes that end of the gallery. A narrow drain extends under the entire length of the gallery, and a tapped hole at the bottom of each section provides an efficient means of drainage.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 2.

{cannon as described in text} ]

The buildings near the gallery are protected by two barricades near the open end, each 10 ft. high and 30 ft. long. A back-stop, consisting of a swinging steel plate, 6 ft. high and 9 ft. long, 50 ft. from the end of the gallery, prevents any of the stemming from doing damage.

Tests are witnessed from an observation room, a protected position about 60 ft. from the gallery. The walls of the room are 18 in. thick, and the line of vision pa.s.ses through a -in. plate gla.s.s, 6 in. wide and 37 ft.

long, and is further confined by two external guards, each 37 ft. long and 3 ft. wide.

In this gallery a series of experiments has been undertaken to determine the amount of moisture necessary with different coal dusts, in order to reduce the likelihood of a coal-dust explosion from a blown-out shot of one of the dangerous types of explosives.

Coal dust taken from the roads of one of the coal mines in the Pittsburg district required at least 12% of water to prevent an ignition. It has also been proven that the finer the dust the more water is required, and when it was 100-mesh fine, 30% of water was required to prevent its ignition by the flame of a blown-out shot in direct contact. The methods now used in sprinkling have been proven entirely insufficient for thoroughly moistening the dust, and hence are unreliable in preventing a general dust explosion.

At this station successful experiments have been carried out by using humidifiers to moisten the atmosphere after the temperature of the air outside the gallery has been raised to mine temperature and drawn through the humidifiers. It has been found that if a relative humidity of 90%, at a temperature of 60 Fahr., is maintained for 48 hours, simulating summer conditions in a mine, the absorption of moisture by the dust and the blanketing effect of the humid air prevent the general ignition of the dust.

These humidity tests have been run in Gas and Dust Gallery No. 1 with special equipment consisting of a Koerting exhauster having a capacity of 240,000 cu. ft. per hour, which draws the air out of the gallery through the first doorway, or that next the concrete head in which the cannon is embedded.

The other end of the gallery is closed by means of brattice cloth and paper diaphragms, the entire gallery being made practically air-tight.

The air enters the fifteenth doorway through a box, pa.s.sing over steam radiators to increase its temperature, and then through the humidifier heads.

EXPLOSIVES TESTING APPARATUS.

There is no exposed woodwork in Building No. 17, which is 40 by 60 ft., two stories high, and substantially constructed of heavy stone masonry, with a slate roof. The structure within is entirely fire-proof. Iron columns and girders, and wooden girders heavily encased in cement, support the floors which are either of cement slab construction or of wooden flooring protected by expanded metal and cement mortar, both above and beneath. At one end, on the ground floor, is the exposing and recording apparatus for flame tests of explosives, also pressure gauges, and a calorimeter, and, at the other end, is a gallery for testing safety lamps.

The larger portion of the second floor is occupied by a gas-tight training room for rescue work, and an audience chamber, from which persons interested in such work may observe the methods of procedure. A storage room for rescue apparatus and different models of safety lamps is also on this floor.

The disruptive force of explosives is determined in three ways, namely, by the ballistic pendulum, by the b.i.+.c.hel pressure gauge, and by Trauzl lead blocks.

_Ballistic Pendulum._--The disruptive force of explosives, as tested by the ballistic pendulum, is measured by the amount of oscillation. The standard unit of comparison is a charge of lb. of 40% nitro-glycerine dynamite. The apparatus consists essentially of a 12-in. mortar (Fig. 3, Plate VI), weighing 31,600 lb., and suspended as a pendulum from a beam having knife-edges. A steel cannon is mounted on a truck set on a track laid in line with the direction of the swing of the mortar. At the time of firing the cannon may be placed 1/16-in. from the muzzle of the mortar. The beam, from which the mortar is suspended, rests on concrete walls, 51 by 120 in. at the base and 139 in. high. On top of each wall is a 1-in. base-plate, 7 by 48 in., anch.o.r.ed to the wall by ?-in. bolts, 28 in. long. The knife-edges rest on bearing-plates placed on these base-plates. The bearing-plates are provided with small grooves for the purpose of keeping the knife-edges in oil and protected from the weather. The knife-edges are each 6 in. long, 2-11/16 in. deep from point to back, 2 in. wide at the back, and taper 50 with the horizontal, starting on a line 1 in. from the back. The point is rounded to conform to a radius of in. The back of each is 2 in. longer than the edge, making a total length of 10 in., and is 1 in. deep and 12 in. wide. This shoulder gives bolting surface to the beam from which the mortar is hung. The beam is of solid steel, has a 4 by 8-in. section, and is 87 in. long. Heavy steel castings are bolted to it to take the threads of the machine-steel rods which form the saddles on which the mortar is suspended. The radius of the swing, measured from the point of the knife-edges to the center of the trunnions, is 89 in.

The cannon consists of two parts, a jacket and a liner. The jacket is 36 in. long, has an external diameter of 24 in., and internal diameters of 9 and 7 in. It is made of the best cast steel or of forged steel.

The liner is 36 in. long, with a 1-in. shoulder, 7 in. from the back, changing the diameter from 9 to 7 in. The bore is smooth, being 2 in.

in diameter and 21 in. long. The cannon rests on a 4-wheel truck, to which it is well braced by straps and rods. A track of 30-in. gauge extends about 9 ft. from the muzzle of the mortar to the b.u.mper for the cannon.

The shot is fired by an electric firing battery, from the first floor of Building No. 17, about 10 yd. away. To insure the safety of the operator and the charger, the man who loads the cannon carries a safety plug without which the charge cannot be exploded. The wires for connecting to the fuse after charging are placed conveniently, and the safety plug is then inserted in a box at the end of the west wall. The completion of the firing battery by the switch at the firing place is indicated by the flas.h.i.+ng of a red light, after which all that is necessary to set off the charge is to press a b.u.t.ton on the battery. An automatic recording device at the back of the mortar records the length of swing which, by a vernier, may be read to 1/200 in.

_b.i.+.c.hel Pressure Gauges._--Pressure gauges are constructed for the purpose of determining the unit disruptive force of explosives detonating at different rates of velocity, by measuring pressures developed in an enclosed s.p.a.ce from which the generated gases cannot escape. The apparatus consists of a stout steel cylinder, which may be made absolutely air-tight; an air-pump and proper connections for exhausting the air in the cylinder to a pressure equivalent to 10 mm. of mercury; an insulated plug for providing the means of igniting the charge; a valve by which the gaseous products of combustion may be removed for subsequent a.n.a.lysis; and an indicator drum (Fig. 1, Plate VII) with proper connections for driving it at a determinable speed.

This apparatus is in the southeast corner of Building No. 17. The cylinder is 31 in. long, 19 in. in diameter, and is anch.o.r.ed to a solid concrete footing at a convenient height for handling. The explosion chamber is 19 in. long and 7?in. in diameter, with a capacity of exactly 15 liters. The cover of the cylinder is a heavy piece of steel held in place by stout screw-bolts and a heavy steel clamp.

The charge is placed on a small wire tripod, and connections are made with a fuse to an electric firing battery for igniting the charges. The cover is drawn tight, with the twelve heavy bolts against lead washers.

The air in the cylinder is exhausted to 10 mm., mercury column, in order to approach more closely the conditions of a stemmed charge exploding in a bore-hole inaccessible to air; the indicator drum is placed in position and set in motion; and, finally, the shot is fired. The record shown on the indicator card is a rapidly ascending curve for quick explosives and a shallower, slowly rising curve for explosives of slow detonation. When the gases cool, the curve merges into a straight line, which indicates the pressures of the cooled gases on the sides of the chamber.

[Ill.u.s.tration: PLATE VIII.

Fig. 1.--Explosives Calorimeter.

Fig. 2.--Building No. 17, and Flame-Test Apparatus.

Fig. 3.--Small Lead Block Test.]

Since the ratio of the volume of the cylinder to the volume of the charge may be computed, the pressure of the confined charge may also be found, and this pressure often exceeds 100,000 lb. per sq. in. The cooling effect of the inner surface on the gaseous products of combustion, a vital point in computations of the disruptive force of explosives by this method, is determined by comparing the pressures obtained in the original cylinder with those in a second cylinder of larger capacity, into which has been inserted one or more steel cylinders to increase the superficial area while keeping the volume equal to that of the first cylinders. By comparing results, a curve may be plotted, which will determine the actual pressures developed, with the surface-cooling effect eliminated.

_Trauzl Lead Blocks._--The lead-block test is the method adopted by the Fifth International Congress of Applied Chemistry as the standard for measuring the disruptive force of explosives. The unit by this test is defined to be the force required to enlarge the bore-hole in the block to an amount equivalent to that produced by 10 grammes of standard 40% nitro-glycerine dynamite stemmed with 50 grammes of dry sand under standard conditions as produced with the tamping device. The results of this test, when compared with those of the b.i.+.c.hel gauge, indicate that, for explosives of high detonation, the lead block is quite accurate, but for slow explosives, such as gunpowder, the expansion of the gases is not fast enough to make comparative results of value. The reason for this is that the gases escape through the bore of the block rather than take effect in expanding the bore-hole.

The lead blocks are cylindrical, 200 mm. in diameter, and 200 mm. high.

Each has a central cavity, 25 mm. in diameter and 125 mm. deep (Fig. 1, Plate IX), in which the charge is placed. The blocks are made of desilverized lead of the best quality, and, as nearly as possible, under identical conditions. The charge is placed in the cavity and prepared for detonation with an electrical exploder and stemming. After the explosion the bore-hole is pear-shaped, the size of the cavity depending, not only on the disruptive power of the explosive, but also on its rate of detonation, as already indicated. The size of the bore-hole is measured by filling the cavity with water from a burette.

The difference in the capacity of the cavity before and after detonation indicates the enlarging power of the explosive.

_Calorimeter._--The explosion calorimeter is designed to measure the amount of heat given off by the detonation of explosive charges of 100 grammes. The apparatus consists of the calorimeter bomb (Fig. 1, Plate VIII), the inner receiver or immersion vessel, a wooden tub, a registering thermometer, and a rocking frame. This piece of apparatus stands on the east side of Building No. 17.

The bottle-shaped bomb is made of -in. wrought steel, and has a capacity of 30 liters. On opposite sides near the top are bored apertures, one for the exhaust valve for obtaining a partial vacuum (about 20 mm., mercury column) after the bomb has been charged, the other for inserting the plug through which pa.s.ses the fuse wire for igniting the charge. The bomb is closed with a cap, by which the chamber may be made absolutely air-tight. It is 30 in. high with the cap on, weighs 158 lb., and is handled to and from the immersion vessel by a small crane.

The inner receiver is made of 1/16-in. sheet copper, 30? in. deep, and with an inner diameter of 17? in. It is nickel-plated, and strengthened on the outside with bands of copper wire, and its capacity is about 70 liters. The outer tub is made of 1-in. lumber strengthened with four bra.s.s hoops on the outside. It is 33 in. deep, and its inner diameter is 21 in.

The stirring device, operated vertically by an electric motor, consists of a small wooden beam connected to a system of three rings having a horizontal bearing surface. When the apparatus is put together, the inner receiver rests on a small standard on top of the base of the outer tank, and the rings of the stirring device are run between the bomb and the inner receiver. The bomb itself rests on a small standard placed on the bottom of the inner receiver. The apparatus is provided with a snugly fitting board cover. The bomb is charged from the top, the explosive being suspended in its center. The air is exhausted to the desired degree of rarification. The caps are then screwed on, and the apparatus is set together as described.

[Ill.u.s.tration: PLATE IX.

Fig. 1.--Trauzl Lead Blocks.

Fig. 2.--Powder Flames.]

The apparatus is a.s.sembled on scales and weighed before the water is poured in and after the receiver is filled. From the weight of the water thus obtained and the rise of temperature, the calorific value may be computed. The charge is exploded by electricity, while the water is being stirred. The rise in the temperature of the water is read by a magnifying gla.s.s, from a thermometer which measures temperature differences of 0.01 degree. From the readings obtained, the maximum temperature of explosion may be determined, according to certain formulas for calorimetric experiments. Proper corrections are made for the effects, on the temperature readings, of the formation of the products of combustion, and for the heat-absorbing power of the apparatus.

_Impact Machine._--In Building No. 17, at the south side, is an impact machine designed to gauge the sensitiveness of explosives to shock. For this purpose, a drop-hammer, constructed to meet the following requirements, is used: A substantial, unyielding foundation; minimum friction in the guide-grooves; and no escape or scattering of the explosive when struck by the falling weight. This machine is modeled after one used in Germany, but is much improved in details of construction.

The apparatus, Fig. 1, Plate XI, consists essentially of the following parts: An endless chain working in a vertical path and provided with lugs; a steel anvil on which the charge of explosive is held by a steel stamp; a demagnetizing collar moving freely in vertical guides and provided with jaws placed so that the lugs of the chain may engage them; a steel weight sliding loosely in vertical guides and drawn by the demagnetizing collar to determinable heights when the machine is in operation; a second demagnetizing collar, which may be set at known heights, and provided with a release for the jaws of the first collar; and a recording device geared to a vertically-driven threaded rod which raises or lowers, sets the second demagnetizing collar, and thus determines the height of fall of the weight. By this apparatus the weight may be lifted to different known heights, and dropped on the steel stamp which transmits the shock to the explosive. The fall necessary to explode the sample is thus determined.

The hammers are of varying weight, the one generally used weighing 2,000 grammes. As the sensitiveness of an explosive is influenced by temperature changes, water at 25 cent. is allowed to flow through the anvil in order to keep its temperature uniform.