Astronomy: The Science of the Heavenly Bodies Part 17

A century ago, when the ring of Saturn was believed to be a continuous plane, this was a favorite corner of the solar system for speculation as to habitability; but now that we know the true const.i.tution of the rings, no one would for a moment consider any such possibility.

Conditions may, however, be quite different with Saturn's huge satellite t.i.tan, the giant moon of the solar system. Its diameter makes it approximately the size of the planet Mars; and although it is much farther removed from the sun, its relative nearness to the highly heated globe of Saturn may provide that equability of temperature which is essential to life processes.

Also the three inner Galilean moons of Jupiter, especially III which is about the size of t.i.tan, are excellently placed for life possibilities, as far as probable temperature is concerned, but we have of course no basis for surmising what their conditions may be as to air and water, except that their small ma.s.s would indicate a probable deficiency of those elements.

Ura.n.u.s and Neptune are planets so remote, and their apparent disks are so small, that very little is known about their physical condition. They are each about one-third the diameter of Jupiter, and the spectrum of Ura.n.u.s shows broad diffused bands, indicating strong absorption by a dense atmosphere very different from that of the earth. Indications are that Neptune has a similar atmosphere.

It is possible that the denser atmospheres of these remote planets may be so conditioned as to selective absorption that the relatively slender supply of solar heat may be conserved, and thus insure a relatively high surface temperature when the sun comes into control. If our theories of origin of the planets are to be trusted, we may rather suppose that Ura.n.u.s and Neptune are still in a highly heated condition; that life has not yet made its appearance on them, but that it will begin its development ages before Saturn and Jupiter have cooled to the requisite temperature.

Comets? In his _Lettres Cosmologiques_ (1765) Lambert considers the question of habitability of the comets, naturally enough in his day, because he thought them solid bodies surrounded by atmosphere, and related to the planets. The extremes of temperature at perihelia and aphelia to which comets are subjected did not bother him particularly.

After calculating that the comet of 1680, "being 160 times nearer to the sun than we are ourselves, must have been subjected to a degree of heat 25,600 times as great as we are," Lambert goes on to say: "Whether this comet was of a more compact substance than our globe, or was protected in some other way, it made its perihelion pa.s.sage in safety, and we may suppose all its inhabitants also pa.s.sed safely. No doubt they would have to be of a more vigorous temperament and of a const.i.tution very different from our own. But why should all living beings necessarily be const.i.tuted like ourselves? Is it not infinitely more probable that amongst the different globes of the universe a variety of organizations exist, adapted to the wants of the people who inhabit them, and fitting them for the places in which they dwell, and the temperatures to which they will be subjected? Is man the only inhabitant of the earth itself?

And if we had never seen either bird or fish, should we not believe that the air and water were uninhabitable? Are we sure that fire has not its invisible inhabitants, whose bodies, made of asbestos, are impenetrable to flame? Let us admit that the nature of the beings who inhabit comets is unknown to us; but let us not deny their existence, and still less the possibility of it."

Little enough is really known about the physical nature of comets even now, but what we do know indicates incessant transformation and instability of conditions that would render life of any type exceedingly difficult of maintenance.

A word about Sir William Herschel's theory of the sun and its habitability. He thought the core of the sun a dark, solid body, quite cold, and surrounded by a double layer, the inner one of which he conceived to act as a sort of fire screen to s.h.i.+eld the sun proper against the intense heat of the outer layer, or photosphere by which we see it. Viewed in this light, the sun, he says, "appears to be nothing else than a very eminent, large and lucid planet, evidently the first, or, in strictness of speaking, the only primary one of our system.... It is most probably also inhabited, like the rest of the planets, by beings whose organs are adapted to the peculiar circ.u.mstances of that vast globe." But physics and biology were undeveloped sciences in Herschel's days.

Herschel knew, however, that the stars are all suns, so that he must have conceived that they are inhabited also, quite independently of the question whether they possess retinues of planets, after the manner of our solar system.

This again is a question to which the astronomer of the present day can give no certain answer. So immensely distant are even the nearest of these mult.i.tudinous bodies that no telescope can ever be built large enough or powerful enough to reveal a dark planet as large as Jupiter, alongside even the nearest fixed star. Whatever may be the process of stellar evolution, there doubtless is an era of many hundreds of millions of years in the life of a star when it is pa.s.sing through a planet-maintaining stage. This would likely depend upon spectral type, or to be indicated by it; and as about half of the stars are of the solar type, it would be a reasonable inference that at least half of the stars may have planets tributary to them.

In such a case, the chances must be overwhelmingly in favor of vast numbers of the planets of other stellar systems being favorably circ.u.mstanced as to heat and moisture for the maintenance of life at the present time. That is, they are habitable, and if habitable, then thousands of them are no doubt inhabited now. But astronomers know absolutely nothing about this question, nor are they able to conceive at present any way that may lead them to any definite knowledge of it.

There is, indeed, one piece of quasi-evidence which might reasonably be interpreted as implying that it is more likely that the stars are not attended by families of planets than that they are.

CHAPTER x.x.xV

THE LITTLE PLANETS

Along toward the end of the eighteenth century and the beginning of the nineteenth, astronomers were leading a quiet unexcited life. Sir William Herschel had been knighted by King George for his discovery of the outer planet Ura.n.u.s, and practically everything seemed to be known and discovered in the solar system with a single exception. Between Mars and Jupiter there existed an obvious gap in the planetary brotherhood.

Could it be possible that some time in the remote cosmic past a planet had actually existed there, and that some celestial cataclysm had blown it to fragments? If so, would they still be traveling round the sun as individual small planets? And might it not be possible to discover some of them among the faint stars that make up the belt of the zodiac in which all the other planets travel?

So interesting was this question that the first international a.s.sociation of astronomers banded themselves together to carry on a systematic search round the entire zodiacal heavens in the faint hope of detecting possible fragments of the original planet of mere hypothesis.

The astronomers of that day placed much reliance on what is known as Bode's law--not a law at all, but a mere arithmetical succession of numbers which represented very well the relative distances of all the planets from the sun. And the distance of the newly found Ura.n.u.s fitted in so well with this law that the utter absence of a planet in the gap between Mars and Jupiter became very strongly marked.

Quite by accident a discovery of one of the guessed-at small planetary bodies was made, on January 1, 1801, in Palermo, Sicily, by Piazzi, who was regularly occupied in making an extensive catalogue of the stars.

His observations soon showed that the new object he had seen could not be a fixed star, because it moved from night to night among the stars.

He concluded that it was a planet, and named it Ceres (1), for the tutelary G.o.ddess of Sicily.

Other astronomers kept up the search, and another companion planet, Pallas (2) was found in the following year. Juno (3) was found in 1804, and Vesta (4), the largest and brightest of all the minor planets, in 1807. Vesta is sometimes bright enough when nearest the earth to be seen with the naked eye; but it was the last of the brighter ones, and no more discoveries of the kind were made till the fifth was found in 1845.

Since then discoveries have been made in great abundance, more and more with every year till the number of little planets at present known is very near 1,000.

The early asteroid hunters found the search rather tedious, and the labor increased as it became necessary to examine the increasing thousands of fainter and fainter stars that must be observed in order to detect the undiscovered planets, which naturally grow fainter and fainter as the chase is prolonged. First a chart of the ecliptic sky had to be prepared containing all the stars that the telescope employed in the search would show. Some of the most detailed charts of the sky in existence were prepared in connection with this work, particularly by the late Dr. Peters of Hamilton College. Once such charts are complete, they are compared with the sky, night after night when the moon is absent. Thousands upon thousands of tedious hours are spent in this comparison, with no result whatever except that chart and sky are found to correspond exactly.

But now and then the planet hunter is rewarded by finding a new object in the sky that does not appear on his chart. Almost certainly this is a small planet, and only a few night's observation will be necessary to enable the discoverer to find out approximately the orbit it is traveling in, and whether it is out-and-out a new planet or only one that had been previously recognized, and then lost track of.

Nearly all the minor planets so far found have had names a.s.signed to them princ.i.p.ally legendary and mythological, and a nearly complete catalogue of them, containing the elements of their orbits (that is, all the mathematical data that tell us about their distance from the sun and the circ.u.mstances of their motion around him) is published each year in the "Annuaire du Bureau des Longitudes" at Paris. But these little planets require a great deal of care and attention, for some astronomers must accurately observe them every few years, and other astronomers must conduct intricate mathematical computations based on these observations; otherwise they get lost and have to be discovered all over again.

Professor Watson, of the University of Michigan and later of the University of Wisconsin, endowed the 22 asteroids of his own discovery, leaving to the National Academy of Sciences a fund for prosecuting this work perpetually, and Leuschner is now ably conducting it.

[Ill.u.s.tration: JUPITER, LARGEST OF THE PLANETS. The irregular belts change their mutual relation and shapes because they do not represent land, but are part of the atmosphere. (_Photo, Yerkes Observatory._)]

[Ill.u.s.tration: THE PLANET NEPTUNE AND ITS SATELLITE. The photograph required an exposure of the plate for one hour. (_Photo, Yerkes Observatory._)]

[Ill.u.s.tration: SATURN, AS SEEN THROUGH THE 40-INCH REFRACTOR, at the time when only the edge of the rings is visible, showing condensations. (_Photo, Yerkes Observatory._)]

[Ill.u.s.tration: SATURN, PHOTOGRAPHED THROUGH THE 40-INCH REFRACTOR.

The rings appear opened to the fullest extent they can be seen from the earth. The picture was made July 7, 1898. (_Photo, Yerkes Observatory._)]

While the number of the asteroids is gratifyingly large, their individual size is so small and their total ma.s.s so slight that, even if there are a hundred thousand of them (as is wholly possible), they would not be comparable in magnitude with any one of the great planets. Vesta, the largest, is perhaps 400 miles in diameter, and if composed of substances similar to those which make up the earth, its ma.s.s may be perhaps one twenty-thousandth of the earth's ma.s.s. If we calculate the surface gravity on such a body, we find it about one-thirtieth of what it is here; so that a rifle ball, if fired on Vesta with a muzzle velocity of only 2,000 feet a second, might overmaster the gravity of the little planet entirely and be projected in s.p.a.ce never to return.

If, as is likely, some of the smallest asteroids are not more than ten miles in diameter, their gravity must be so feeble a force that it might be overcome by a stone thrown from the hand. There is no reliable evidence that any of the asteroids are surrounded by atmospheric gases of any sort. Probably they are for the most part spherical in form, although there is very reliable evidence that a few of the asteroids, being variable in the amount of sunlight that they reflect, are irregular in form, mere angular ma.s.ses perhaps.

The network of orbits of the asteroids is inconceivable complicated.

Nevertheless, there is a wide variation in their average distance from the sun, and their periods of traveling round him vary in a similar manner, the shortest being only about three years. While the longest is nearly nine years in duration, the average of all their periods is a little over four years. The gap in the zone of asteroids, at a distance from the sun equal to about five-eighths that of Jupiter, is due to the excessive disturbing action of Jupiter, whose periodic time is just twice as long as that of a theoretical planet at this distance.

The average inclination of their orbits to the plane of the ecliptic is not far from 8 degrees. But the orbit of Pallas, for example, is inclined 35 degrees, and the eccentricities of the asteroid orbits are equally erratic and excessive. Both eccentricity and inclination of orbit at times suggest a possible relation to cometary orbits, but nothing has ever been definitely made out connecting asteroids and comets in a related origin.

No comprehensive theory of the origin of the asteroid group has yet been propounded that has met with universal acceptance. According to the nebular hypothesis the original gaseous material, which should have been so concentrated as to form a planet of ordinary type, has in the case of the asteroids collected into a mult.i.tude of small ma.s.ses instead of simply one. That there is a sound physical reason for this can hardly be denied. According to the Laplacian hypothesis, the nearness of the huge planetary ma.s.s of Jupiter just beyond their orbits produced violent perturbations which caused the original ring of gaseous material to collect into fragmentary ma.s.ses instead of one considerable planet. The theory of a century ago that an original great planet was shattered by internal explosive forces is no longer regarded as tenable.

To astronomers engaged upon investigation of distances in the solar system, the asteroid group has proved very useful. The late Sir David Gill employed a number of them in a geometrical research for finding the sun's distance, and more recently the discovery of Eros (433) has made it possible to apply a similar method for a like purpose when it approaches nearest to the earth in 1924 and 1931. Then the distance of Eros will be less than half that of Mars or even Venus at their nearest.

When the total number of asteroids discovered has reached 1,000, with accurate determination of all their orbits, we shall have sufficient material for a statistical investigation of the group which ought to elucidate the question of its origin, and bear on other problems of the cosmogony yet unsolved. Present methods of discovery of the asteroids by photography replace entirely the old method by visual observation alone, with the result that discoveries are made with relatively great ease and rapidity.

CHAPTER x.x.xVI

THE GIANT PLANET

I can never forget as a young boy my first glimpse of the planet Jupiter and his moons; it was through a bit of a telescope that I had put together with my own hands; a tube of pasteboard, and a pair of old spectacle lenses that chanced to be lying about the house.

In the field of view I saw five objects; four of them looking quite alike, and as if they were stars merely (they were Jupiter's moons), while the fifth was vastly larger and brighter. It was circular in shape, and I thought I could see a faint darkish line across the middle of it.

This experience encouraged me immensely, and I availed myself eagerly of the first chance to see Jupiter through a bigger and better gla.s.s. Then I saw at once that I had observed nothing wrongly, but that I had seen only the merest fraction of what there was to see.

In the first place, the planet's disk was not perfectly circular, but slightly oval. Inquiring into the cause of this, we must remember that Jupiter is actually not a flat disk but a huge ball or globe, more than ten times the diameter of the earth, which turns swiftly round on its axis once every ten hours as against the earth's turning round in twenty-four hours. Then it is easy to see how the centrifugal force bulges outward the equatorial regions of Jupiter, so that the polar regions are correspondingly drawn inward, thereby making the polar diameter shorter than the equatorial one, which is in line with the moons or satellites. The difference between the two diameters is very marked, as much as one part in fifteen. All the planets are slightly flattened in this way, but Jupiter is the most so of all except Saturn.

The little darkish line across the planet's middle region or equator was found to be replaced by several such lines or irregular belts and spots, often seen highly colored, especially with reflecting telescopes; and they are perpetually changing their mutual relation and shapes, because they are not solid territory or land on Jupiter, but merely the outer shapes of atmospheric strata, blown and torn and twisted by atmospheric circulation on this planet, quite the same as clouds in the atmosphere on the earth are.

Besides this the axial turning of Jupiter brings an entirely different part of the planet into view every two or three hours; so that in making a map or chart of the planet, an arbitrary meridian must be selected.

Even then the process is not an easy one, and it is found that spots on Jupiter's equator turn round in 9 hours 50 minutes, while other regions take a few minutes longer, the nearer the poles are approached. The Great Red Spot, about 30,000 miles long and a quarter as much in breadth has been visible for about half a century. Bolton, an English observer, has made interesting studies of it very recently.