ISIS: The State of Terror Part 19

40.Will McCants, email communication to coauthor Jessica Stern, November 7, 2014.

41.Rosabeth Moss Kanter observed many of these commitment mechanisms in nineteenth-century utopias and communes. Rosabeth Moss Kanter, Commitment and Community: Communes and Utopias in Sociological Perspective (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1972), 8384.

42.Lifton defines totalistic groups as ideological organizations that strive to control all human behavior and thought. Lifton, Destroying the World to Save It.

43.Ibid., 5.

44.Ibid.

45.Jessica Stern, "Terrorist Motivations and Unconventional Weapons," in Peter Lavoy, Scott Sagan, and James Wirtz, eds., Planning the Unthinkable (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2000).

46.Lifton, Destroying the World to Save It, 5.

CHAPTER 11. THE STATE OF TERROR.

1.Reza Aslan, No G.o.d but G.o.d (New York: Random House, 2006), 263.

2.Karen Armstrong, Islam-A Short History (New York: Random House, 2002), 165.

3.Marwan Muasher, email communication, December 9, 2014.

4.Office of the Press Secretary, "Statement by the President on ISIL," The White House, September 10, 2014, http://www.whitehouse.gov/blog/2014/09/10/president-obama-we-will-degrade-and-ultimately-destroy-isil.

5.Geoff Earle, "Dempsey Hints at Ground Troups if US Attack on ISIS Fail," New York Post, September 16, 2014, http://nypost.com/2014/09/16/army-general-to-congress-if-airstrikes-fail-us-should-deploy-ground-troops-in-iraq/.

6.Millenarianism involves the expectation of sweeping societal change, possibly as a result of the apocalypse.

7.Steven Pinker, email communication, September 13, 2014.

8.John D. Graham, and Jonathan Baert Wiener, eds., Risk vs. Risk: Tradeoffs in Protecting Health and the Environment (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995), 234.

9.Anthony Patt and Richard Zeckhauser, "Behavioral Perceptions and Policies Toward the Environment," in Rajeev Gowda and Jeffrey C. Fox, eds., Judgments, Decisions, and Public Policy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 256302; Graham and Wiener, eds., Risk vs. Risk, 234.

10.Jessica Stern, "Dreaded Risks and the Control of Biological Weapons," International Security 27, no. 3 (2003): 89123.

11."Syrian Refugees," http://syrianrefugees.eu/, last updated October 2014; "Jordan: Vulnerable Refugees Forcibly Returned to Syria," Human Rights Watch, November 24, 2014, http://www.hrw.org/news/2014/11/23/jordan-vulnerable-refugees-forcibly-returned-syria.

12.Alessandra Masi, "Raqqa Civilians, Hit by New a.s.sad Airstrikes, Tell Stories of ISIS Executions and Coalition Bombings," International Business Times, November 25, 2014, www.ibtimes.com/raqqa-civilians-hit-new-a.s.sad-airstrikes-tell-stories-isis-executions-coalition-1729295.

13."Jabhat al-Nusra Eyes Idlib for Islamic Emirate," Al-Monitor, November 13, 2014, http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/11/jabhat-al-nusra-idlib-islamic-emirate.html.

14.Charles Lister, "In Syria, a Last Gasp Warning for U.S. Influence," Brookings Inst.i.tution, December 5, 2014, http://www.brookings.edu/blogs/markaz/posts/2014/12/05-syria-united-states-losing-last-gasp-at-leverage.

15.Daniel Bolger, "The Truth About Wars," op-ed, New York Times, November 10, 2014, http://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/11/opinion/the-truth-about-the-wars-in-iraq-and-afghanistan.html?_r=0.

16.John Harwood, "An American General Explains How We Lost In Iraq And Afghanistan," NPR On Point, (radio), November 13, 2014, http://onpoint.wbur.org/2014/11/13/lost-iraq-afghanistan-army-general. Former Senator James Webb and General Powell also warned against occupying Iraq, according to this show. In 2002, then Senator James Webb wrote an op-ed asking whether the American people were prepared to occupy Iraq for 3050 years. James Webb, "Heading for Trouble: Do We Really Want to Occupy Iraq for the Next 30 Years?" Was.h.i.+ngton Post, September 4, 2002, http://www.motherjones.com/mojo/2006/09/jim-webbs-2002-op-ed-against-invading-iraq.

17.Leslie Gelb, "Iraq Must Not Come Apart," New York Times, July 1, 2014, http://www.nytimes.com/2014/07/02/opinion/leslie-gelb-iraq-must-not-come-apart.html.

18."David Petraeus: ISIS's Rise in Iraq Isn't a Surprise," Frontline, PBS, July 29, 2014.

19.Clint Watts, "The U.S. Can't Destroy ISIS, Only ISIS Can Destroy ISIS-The Unfortunate Merits of the 'Let Them Rot' Strategy," Foreign Policy Research Inst.i.tute, September 2014, http://www.fpri.org/geopoliticus/2014/09/us-cant-destroy-isis-only-isis-can-destroy-isis-unfortunate-merits-let-them-rot-strategy.

20.Liz Sly, "The Islamic State is failing at being a state," Was.h.i.+ngton Post, December 24, 2014, http://www.was.h.i.+ngtonpost.com/world/middle_east/the-islamic-state-is-failing-at-being-a-state/2014/12/24/bfbf8962-8092-11e4-b936-f3afab0155a7_story.html; Kevin Sullivan and Karla Adam, "Hoping to create a new society, the Islamic State recruits entire families," Was.h.i.+ngton Post, December 24, 2014, http://www.was.h.i.+ngtonpost.com/world/national-security/hoping-to-create-a-new-homeland-the-islamic-state-recruits-entire-families/2014/12/24/dbffceec-8917-11e4-8ff4-fb93129c9c8b_story.html 21.Karen Armstrong, Islam (New York: Random House, 2002), 165.

22.Allison Smith, Peter Suedfeld, Lucian Conway, and David Winter, "The Language of Violence: Distinguis.h.i.+ng Terrorist from Nonterrorist Groups by Thematic a.n.a.lysis," Dynamics of Asymmetric Conflict: Pathways Toward Terrorism and Genocide 1, no. 2 (2008) http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17467580802590449#.VHwBmTFvr6g.

23."Suedfeld's Integrative Complexity Research," Peter Suedfeld's Home Page, last updated June 2004, http://www2.psych.ubc.ca/~psuedfeld/index2.html; L. Myyry, "Everday Value Conflicts and Integrative Complexity of Thought," Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 43, no. 5 (2002): 38595.

24.Jose Liht, "Preventing Violent Extremism Though Value Complexity: Being Muslim Being British," Journal of Strategic Security 6, no. 4 (Winter 2013), http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1253&context=jss.

25."Although the Disbelievers Dislike It," ISIS video, November 15, 2014.

26."ADL Report Finds Right Wing Extremist Use Shortwave Radio to Target U.S. Audiences; Asks FCC to Investigate Possible Violation of Regulations," ADL, http://archive.adl.org/presrele/dirab_41/2655_41.html.

27."U.S. Designates Al-Manar as a Specially Designated Global Terrorist Ent.i.ty[;] Television Station Is Arm of Hizballah Terrorist Network," U.S Department of the Treasury, press release, March 23, 2006, http://www.treasury.gov/press-center/press-releases/Pages/js4134.aspx.

28.Jillian York, "Terrorists on Twitter," Slate, June 25, 2014, http://www.slate.com/articles/technology/future_tense/2014/06/isis_twitter_suspended_how_attempts_to_silence_terrorists_online_could_backfire.html.

29.Colby Itkowitz, "State Department Trolls Islamic State Militants on Twitter," Was.h.i.+ngton Post, November 18, 2014, http://www.was.h.i.+ngtonpost.com/blogs/in-the-loop/wp/2014/11/18/state-department-trolls-islamic-state-militants-on-twitter/.

30."Islamic State Group 'Executes 700' in Syria," Al Jazeera, August 17, 2014, http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2014/08/islamic-state-group-executes-700-syria-2014816123945662121.html; J. M. Berger, "For Global Jihadist Supporters, Islamic State's Ma.s.sacre Wipes Out Any Sympathy Over U.S. Strikes," IntelWire, August 18, 2014, http://news.intelwire.com/2014/08/for-global-jihadist-supporters-islamic.html.

31."Full Transcript of Bin Ladin's Speech," Al Jazeera, November 1, 2014.

32.Max Fisher, "6 Concrete Policy Ideas for Fixing America's Drone Dilemma," Was.h.i.+ngton Post, February 6, 2014, http://www.was.h.i.+ngtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/wp/2013/02/06/6-concrete-policy-ideas-for-fixing-americas-drone-dilemma/.

33.David Rothkopf, "Coming Clean, with Bloodstained Hands," Foreign Policy, December 9, 2014, http://foreignpolicy.com/2014/12/09/coming-clean-with-bloodstained-hands-senate-torture-report-cia-bush-administration-obama/.

34.George W. Bush, speech at the National Endowment for Democracy, Was.h.i.+ngton, DC, October 6, 2005, http://www.presidentialrhetoric.com/speeches/10.06.05.html.

35.For instance, in a 2007 study of public opinion in Egypt, Indonesia, Morocco, and Pakistan, conducted by the Program on International Policy Att.i.tudes at the University of Maryland, majorities in those countries believed that Was.h.i.+ngton's primary goal was to dominate the Middle East and weaken Islam and its people. Steven Kull, "Muslim Public Opinion on US Policy, Attacks on Civilians and Al Qaeda," Program on International Policy Att.i.tudes, University of Maryland, April 24, 2007, http://www.worldpublicopinion.org/pipa/pdf/. . ./START_Apr07_rpt.pdf.

36.Thomas Carothers, "Promoting Democracy and Fighting Terror," Foreign Affairs, January/February 2003.

37.Alberto Abadie, "Poverty, Political Freedom, and the Roots of Terrorism," American Economic Review 96, no. 2 (2006): 5056, http://www.jstor.org/stable/30034613, accessed January 30, 2014. Political scientist Erica Chenoweth found that post-1997, so-called anocracies, weak states between autocracies and democracies, have become most vulnerable to terrorism. However, she reports that terrorism in anocracies is most closely linked to the U.S. invasion of Iraq and Afghanistan. Removing Iraq, Aghanistan, and Pakistan from her data, Chenoweth shows that democracies still remain the most vulnerable to attacks. Erica Chenoweth, "Is Terrorism Still a Democratic Phenomenon?" International Relations 8, no. 32 (Winter 2012): 85100. Burcu Savun and Brian J. Phillips report a similar idea, that it is not democracy itself but foreign policy that is a risk factor for vulnerability. They find that states involved in international politics, a policy often persued by democracies, are more likely to be targed for a terrorist attack than their less involved counterparts. Burcu Savun and Brian J. Phillips, "Democracy, Foreign Policy, and Terrorism," Journal of Conflict Resolution 53, no. 6 (2009): 878904. Robert Pape found that suicide bombers almost always are deployed to fight a military occupation and that they almost always target democracies. Robert Anthony Pape, Dying to Win: The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism (New York: Random House, 2005); Robert A. Pape and James K. Feldman, Cutting the Fuse: The Explosion of Global Suicide Terrorism and How to Stop It (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010). Thomas Carothers believes that democracy promotion was tainted due to the Bush administration's a.s.sociation of democracy promotion with intervention and regime change, and their failure to put pressure on friendly authoritarian regimes under the pretense of protecting economic and security interests. Thomas Carothers, "U.S. Democracy Promotion During and After Bush," Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, September 5, 2007.

38.Edward Mansfield and Jack Snyder, "p.r.o.ne to Violence: The Paradox of Democratic Peace," National Interest no. 82 (Winter 2005): 39.

39.The term marries two closely connected ideas. It is liberal because it draws on the philosophical strain, beginning with the Greeks, that emphasizes individual liberty. It is const.i.tutional because it rests on the tradition, beginning with the Romans, of the rule of law. Fareed Zakaria, "The Rise of Illberal Democracy," Foreign Affairs, November/December 1997, 2; Fareed Zakaria, The Future of Freedom: Illiberal Democracy at Home and Abroad (New York: Norton, 2007).

40.Zakaria, "The Rise of Illberal Democracy," 2; Zakaria, The Future of Freedom.

41.Marwan Muasher, The Second Arab Awakening (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2014).

42."Jordan's King: Fight on ISIS 'a Third World War," CBS News, December 5, 2014, http://www.cbsnews.com/news/jordan-king-abdullah-on-isis-middle-east-conflict/.

APPENDIX.

1.Fred M. Donner, "Muhammad and the Caliphate: Political History of the Islamic Empire Up to the Mongol Conquest," in The Oxford History of Islam, ed. John L. Esposito (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 9.

2.Richard W Bulliet, Islam: The View from the Edge (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994), 5.

3.Ibid., 110.

4.Vali Nasr, The s.h.i.+a Revival (New York: Norton, 2006), 49.

5.Ibid., 57.

6.Ibid., 70.

7.Nelly Lahoud, The Jihadis' Path to Self-Destruction (New York: Columbia University Press, 2010), 105.

8.Donner, "Muhammad and the Caliphate," 31.

9.Ibid., 312.

10.Albert Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age: 17981939 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 10.

11.Drew Desilver, "World's Muslim population more widespread than you might think," Pew Research Center, June 7, 2013; http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2013/06/07/worlds-muslim-population-more-widespread-than-you-might-think/.

12.Donner, "Muhammad and the Caliphate," 7.

13.Ibid.

14.John L. Esposito, Islam: The Straight Path (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988), 90.

15.Mohammad Abu Rumman, I Am A Salafi (Amman: Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, 2014), 43.

16.Hillel Fradkin, "The History and Unwritten Future of Salafism," Current Trends in Islamic Ideology, 6 (2008): 13.

17.R. Scott Appleby, "Introduction," in Spokesmen for the Despised: Fundamentalist Leaders of the Middle East, ed. R. Scott Appleby (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997), 34.

18.A number of taxonomies have been offered by scholars studying Salafism and this particular language-quietist, political, and jihadi-is adapted from multiple sources. One prominent example of this approach to Salafism can be found in Quintan Wiktorowicz, "Anatomy of the Salafi Movement," Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 29 (2006). A similar taxonomy that breaks Salafism into more than three factions has been offered by Mohammad Abu Rumman, I Am a Salafi.

19.Wiktorowicz, "Anatomy of the Salafi Movement," 218.

20.Ibid., 2212.

21.Hasan Al-Banna, "Our Mission," in Five Tracts of Hasan Al-Banna, trans. Charles Wendell (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), 46.

22.Lahoud, The Jihadis' Path to Self-Destruction, 109.

23.Ibid.

24.Muslim Brotherhood members fled persecution in Egypt by migrating to a number of countries. Saudi Arabia is singled out princ.i.p.ally because its oil wealth made it possible for it to proselytize far beyond its borders thus spreading both political and jihadi Salafism across the region. For an a.n.a.lysis of Salafism in Jordan that discusses a similar pattern of politicization, see Mohammad Abu Rumman, I Am a Salafi.

25.Nasr, The s.h.i.+a Revival, 155.

26.Wiktorowicz, "Anatomy of the Salafi Movement," 225.

27.Ibid., 222.

28.Ibid.

29.Lawrence Wright, The Looming Tower: Al-Qaeda and the Road to 9/11 (New York: Knopf, 2006), 79.

30.Wiktorowicz, "Anatomy of the Salafi Movement," 225.

31.Ibid., 2257.

32.Khaled Abou El Fadl, The Great Theft (New York: Harper One, 2007), 79.

33.To further complicate the issue, "Wahhabism" is an "outsider's designation" with a controversial and somewhat derogatory connotation. Individuals that we might describe as practicing Wahhabism are actually more likely to describe themselves as "Salafi" or "Muwahhidun" (typically translated as "unitarian" and understood to be a reference to the "unity and uniqueness of G.o.d"). Christina h.e.l.lmich, "Creating the Ideology of Al Qaeda: From Hypocrites to Salafi-Jihadists," Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 31 (2008): 114; "Tawhid," in The Oxford Dictionary of Islam, ed. John L. Esposito (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003).

34.For an example of this position, see Ed Husain, "Saudis Must Stop Exporting Extremism: ISIS Atrocities Started With Saudi Support for Salafi Hate," New York Times, August 22, 2014, http://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/23/opinion/isis-atrocities-started-with-saudi-support-for-salafi-hate.html.

35.El Fadl, The Great Theft, 76.

36."Takfir," in The Oxford Dictionary of Islam, ed. John L. Esposito.

37.Wiktorowicz, "Anatomy of the Salafi Movement," 232.

38.Quintan Wiktorowicz, "A Genealogy of Radical Islam," Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 28 (2005): 77.

39.Wiktorowicz, "Anatomy of the Salafi Movement," 233.

40.Ibid., 230.

41."Jahiliyyah," in The Oxford Dictionary of Islam, ed. John L. Esposito.

42.Wiktorowicz, "A Genealogy of Radical Islam," 78.

43.Seyyed Vali Reza Nasr, Mawdudi and the Making of Islamic Revivalism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), 68.

44.El Fadl, The Great Theft, 83.

45.Ibid., 221.

46.Nasr, Mawdudi and the Making of Islamic Revivalism, 70.

47.Ibid., 74.