Our First Half-Century Part 29

GOVERNMENT'S FIRST FLOWING WELL.

It was at this time, after three years' fighting with difficulties arising from drought, the want of knowledge of deep-boring machinery, and the indisposition of the Government to spend much money in so speculative an undertaking, that the first gleam of daylight appeared.

On 6th October, 1888, the Hydraulic Engineer reported that four contracts had been entered into for deep boring, with as many different persons or companies, in the aggregate over 20,000 ft.

Included among these was the contract with the Canadian Pole Tool Company (of which the late Mr. Percy Ricardo was then the financial head, and Mr. William Woodley, who had been induced to come over from Canada, was the head driller) for completing the Blackall bore to a depth of 2,000 ft. if necessary. In this bore, on 26th April, 1888, after many vexatious stoppages, "an abundant supply of overflowing, sparkling, fresh artesian water, excellently adapted for domestic purposes, was tapped at a depth of 1,645 ft." The rate of flow, as measured from 3 in. piping attached to a screw plug and valve to control the flow, was found to be 210,000 gallons per diem, with a temperature of 119 degrees. This had been an expensive bore, for it cost 5,748. It was not the first artesian water officially utilised in Queensland, for four months earlier than water rose to the surface in the Blackall bore the Barcaldine bore was yielding 175,416 gallons of water a day, at a temperature of 101 degrees, obtained from a depth of 691 ft., and at a cost of only 1,220.

THIRTEEN ADDITIONAL BORES.

These results were so encouraging that the Hydraulic Engineer recommended the sinking of thirteen additional bores, and the recommendation was approved. As early as possible tenders were advertised, and there then seemed some difficulty in getting eligible applications, partly, it may be a.s.sumed, because of the activity of private enterprise in bore-sinking. To those engaged in this undertaking Mr. Henderson in his 1889 report pays a graceful tribute, congratulating them on their successes, and expressing regret at their failures, in which they only met the same luck as the Government had encountered. It was in this report also that the Hydraulic Engineer suggested that a map be prepared showing the position, alt.i.tude, and other useful particulars of all Government and private bores and wells in Queensland, and he invited information from all persons capable of giving it. Mr. Henderson mentioned the successful sinking of the Cunnamulla bore, having a flow of 22,500 gallons per hour of "excellent fresh water," with a pressure of 186 lb. to the square inch, a temperature of 106 degrees, and a depth of 1,402 ft. The total cost of this bore was 1,928. The success of the Tambo bore was also reported at the same time, 8,333 gallons per hour having been obtained at a depth of 1,002 ft., with a temperature of 98 degrees, and for a cost of 1,515.

THE CHARLEVILLE BORE.

The Hydraulic Engineer's report dated 11th September, 1890, supplies evidence of the importance of the discoveries made up to that date of artesian water in Queensland. The striking of a supply of 3,000,000 gallons a day of "water clear, colourless, soft, and potable" in the Charleville bore is noted with satisfaction. In the text of the report this was said to be, so far as the writer knew, the "best well in Australia," but a footnote added that soon afterwards a bore in the Cunnamulla district was reported to have been tapped with a daily supply of 3 million gallons. The depth of the Charleville bore was only 1,370 ft., and its cost 2,389. The striking of a supply of 1,095,000,000 gallons per annum at so small a cost was naturally a subject for both official and general congratulation.

INFORMATION SOUGHT AS TO PRIVATE BORES.

In the same year is reported the striking of water in the Muckadilla bore, which yielded about 10,000 gallons a day from a depth of over 3,000 ft., and was then believed to be the deepest bore in Australia.

The cost was 2,673. A somewhat better supply was afterwards struck at 3,262 ft. In this report the Hydraulic Engineer expresses regret that through the absence of barometrical measurements, owing to scarcity of money, the height above sea level of proposed sites for bores was not known, but sites were selected from surface indications and the results achieved by sinking in the neighbourhood. The wells sunk by the Government had been of much use in a.s.sisting private enterprise to select likely sites, but it would have been more satisfactory had better information been obtained by the use of the spirit level.

Acknowledgments were made to those who had responded to the circular invitation sent out for information, and regret was expressed that in some cases there had been no response. The effort made, however, had enabled several new features to be embodied in the report, among which was a table containing a list of both public and private bores, and a large map locating, so far as possible, the position of each. Another map showed the rainfall in different parts of the colony, while a handsome diagram of the Brisbane rainfall was furnished for the first time. Both of these remained features of the Hydraulic Engineer's annual reports until 1901, when revenue considerations compelled their suspension.

HINDRANCES FROM FLOODS.

During 1890 excessive rains and bad roads hindered work in bore-sinking, instead of the dry periods which had been the cause of embarra.s.sment for the preceding seven years. The only newly completed bore during this year was that at McKinlay, which at 1,002 ft. gave a supply of 224,000 gallons a day. Water was struck in two other bores, but of insufficient quant.i.ty, and work was still proceeding. The obstacles encountered in boring, often from the breaking of machinery, but more frequently from the want of thoroughly skilled drillers, must have been disheartening, especially in cases where the sinking was done without useful scientific information, and bores had to be abandoned after months--even years in cases--of labour and worry.

In his report of 20th January, 1893, the Hydraulic Engineer discusses at length the question of artesian water supply. The country is, he holds, now in a much improved position to encounter long droughts.

Valuable information has been and is still being obtained by exploration as to the prospects of artesian water being found, and also as to the conservation of surface water by artificial means. He says that fifteen bores, averaging 1,571 ft. each, have been sunk by the department, and that although the work has been of a pioneering character only one sunk to the contract depth has proved a failure. He estimates that about 88,000 square miles in the western country have been proved to be water-bearing, and he urges that as large areas still remain to be explored the present is a favourable time for inviting tenders for the work.

STREAM-GAUGING RECOMMENDED.

In this report the Hydraulic Engineer directs attention to the necessity of acquiring information as to the extent of our surface-water resources. In three of the southern colonies, he mentions, a systematic practice of gauging streams has for some time been in force. The work will be useless unless it is carried on for a number of years. The essential thing to be ascertained is not the maximum flow of a stream, but the minimum; or rather, perhaps, the maximum that can be expected from a stream in a season of maximum aridity. "Without such data," he continues, "no fair distribution of water, no scheme of water supply, or irrigation, or drainage can be well considered; nor can storage and distribution or drainage works be economically designed, or their permanency and efficiency ensured."

He therefore urges the matter of stream-gauging upon the favourable consideration of the Government, adding that the paramount necessity of active administration in respect of water conservation generally has been recognised by Parliament by legislation already placed upon the Statute-book.

WASTE OF ARTESIAN WATER.

Two official pages of the 1893 report are devoted to the "misuse of water," a member of Parliament having already objected to the application of the word "waste" to water allowed to flow unchecked from bores. The aggregate capacity of the ten Government bores then flowing was 5,000,000 gallons daily, all measured; while of the 137 private wells the flow was estimated at 100,000,000 gallons daily.

This total of 105,000,000 gallons would be equivalent to a rainfall of 29 in. on 91 square miles of country. This was the rate of average rainfall on the a.s.sumed outcrop of water-bearing country that supplied the artesian area. And it had to be remembered that a part of this rainfall of 29 in. had to be carried off by streams as well as by evaporation, and therefore did not sink into the water-bearing strata of the arid west. As to the extent of the outcrop, it was estimated not to exceed one-eighth of a mile, with a total length of 1,600 miles, which meant a total supply of 200 square miles of water-bearing outcrop area.[a] Arguing on these and other grounds, the report contends that the falling off of the yield of many bores affords proof that, wherever the supply comes from, the outflow already exceeds the inflow. The Engineer can only regard as wasted two-thirds of the water that now flows from the artesian bores in Queensland; indeed, adopting the language of an American, "the waste is a crime against the well-owner and against the State."

[Footnote a: For fuller particulars see Hydraulic Engineer's Report for 1893, pages 5 and 6.]

CONTROL OF FLOW NECESSARY.

The Hydraulic Engineer adds that while he cannot a.s.sert that the artesian flow is being exhausted, he yet holds that the flow ought to be controlled by legislative action.[b]

[Footnote b: On this pa.s.sage the Hydraulic Engineer notes that, in 1891, a bill was introduced into Parliament by Sir Thomas McIlwraith for controlling the artesian water supply, and pa.s.sed through the a.s.sembly, but was rejected by the Council. Since then no action in that direction has been taken.]

IRRIGATION BY BORES.

The same report contains an interesting article on irrigation.

It points out that at the beginning of 1892 there were only 200 irrigators among the land cultivators of the colony, and that the area irrigated was only 5,000 acres. It was believed that in the last year the amount of land so fertilised had largely increased. Many of the plants and distributing apparatus were of a most primitive kind.

"Some are expensive, others badly erected, and not a few are of a type ill-adapted to the object in view."

The report goes on to discuss the probability or otherwise of water in sufficient quant.i.ties for irrigation being obtainable by conservation.

In summarising his argument the Hydraulic Engineer says, "Looking at the question broadly, I am much disposed to regard the possibilities of a sufficiently abundant supply of water being obtained for irrigation, especially for land in small areas devoted to intense culture, as of considerable promise." He then urges the inadequacy of artesian wells for the irrigation of large areas, pointing out, among other things, that the entire discharge of the wells then flowing in Queensland would suffice to irrigate only 219 square miles to a depth of 1 ft. He thinks that in Queensland we shall have to depend upon "natural" water for irrigation purposes.

A VALUABLE MAP--376,832 SQUARE MILES IN ARTESIA.

A new feature in the 1893 report was the map giving information as to (1) artesian bores applied for, (2) under contract, (3) in progress, and (4) completed. It showed that out of a total of 668,497 square miles of the "Rolling Downs Formation" (Lower Cretaceous) no less than 376,832 square miles, chiefly in the arid west, was likely to be water-bearing. This estimate, it may be noted, has been very slightly reduced of late, but the scope for exploration in water-finding seems still great in Western Queensland. The report alludes to the success attained in the Queensland manufacture of well-boring machinery. All the plant used, the wire rope alone excepted, was manufactured in the colony, where improvements had been made in the originally imported article. Yet it is admitted that the apparatus used was "not a perfectly scientific one, because it does not produce a core by means of which the nature of the strata and the angle and direction of the dip can be fully ascertained." Queensland yellow-wood (_Flindersia Oxleyana_) had quite replaced American timber in the manufacture of drilling poles.

[Ill.u.s.tration: SCENE ON LOGAN RIVER, SOUTH QUEENSLAND]

EFFECT OF GOOD SEASONS.

In closing, the Hydraulic Engineer reports that the succession of good seasons experienced (years 1890-93), and the abundance of water and gra.s.s resulting, has occasioned much inattention to water conservation, and he also expresses regret that financial exigencies have compelled the dispensing with some valued members of his staff.

The article is ill.u.s.trated by diagrams, and the studious reader will peruse it with profit.

THE SOURCE OF ARTESIAN WATER.

In his report for 1st November, 1894, the Hydraulic Engineer recurs to the source of artesian water. He regrets that very little can be added to the previous a.s.sumption that it lies in the outcrops of the porous beds of the Lower Cretaceous formation on the western slope of the coast range; and he urges the necessity of acc.u.mulating facts relating to the bores already sunk, and complains that some owners neglect to give the department the information sought. He urges that legislation should make the furnis.h.i.+ng of statistical matter of this kind compulsory. He doubts whether, in the absence of information as to the precise geological conditions subsisting beneath the surface, a map of Queensland can ever be prepared showing with certainty where artesian water can be found; but much may be done by acc.u.mulating accurate information with respect to the sinking of bores, nature of strata pa.s.sed through, amount and pressure of flow, temperature of water, and depth beneath the surface whence obtained in each case. The map issued by the Geological Department would show the water-bearing areas, which means the formation in which water may be expected to be found; but bores can only be put down with reasonable certainty when the entire western country has been prospected.

THE LIFE OF ARTESIAN WELLS.

The life of an artesian well with a permanent spring, says the report, is limited by the durability of the casing. The corrosive action of some water is much greater than others; but there should be no difficulty in renewing the casing when necessary. It has often been discovered that an interruption of the flow, or its serious diminution, is the result of worn-out casing. So much is this the case that there is still controversy as to whether there is any general diminution in the supply consequent upon continuous waste.

ARTESIAN WATER POWER.

The report then discusses the question of using artesian water for power in the industries. The Hydraulic Engineer points out that of the total horse-power used in the United States at that time about 395 per cent. was hydrodynamic. Artesian water, he says, can be applied to driving all kinds of machinery, "from a sewing machine or a cream separator to a saw or flour mill; and for fire-extinguis.h.i.+ng it is most excellent." He therefore recommends the employment in Western Queensland of turbines and Pelton wheel motors for sheep-shearing, electric lighting, and other kinds of machinery used there, pointing out that the horse-power available was--At Blackall, 804; at Cunnamulla, 4153; at Charleville, 12341; and at Thargomindah, 6351.[c] He further recommends the utilisation of the artesian supply for street mains, a suggestion since carried out with great public advantage in several western towns. While Mr. Henderson doubts the utility of artesian water for irrigation, he says that, generally speaking, it is quite as valuable as that from town mains, rivers, and falls for developing power. The aggregate area to date in which precious artesian water has been found in Queensland is 117,000 square miles, and he feels that this area would be rapidly enlarged by exploration by both Government and private borings. The shallowest completed flowing well in Queensland at that date was 60 ft., and the deepest 3,630 ft.; the average depth so far as known to the department was 1,289 ft.

[Footnote c: Mr. Henderson notes that these horse-powers have since been very much reduced.]

STATIC PRESSURE AND HYDRAULIC PRESSURE.

Explaining why the volume flowing from a well does not depend upon the diameter of the "static" pressure of the water, Mr. Henderson says that the flow depends princ.i.p.ally upon the relative alt.i.tudes of the outcrops of the water-bearing beds, and of the mouth of the bore or well, and upon the character and texture of the porous beds from which the well derives its supply. The static pressure is ascertained by stopping the flow by artificial means, when the pressure generally rises, sometimes quickly, at other times slowly, until it reaches a maximum. But when the well is again opened it will be found that the static pressure has been more or less reduced by friction. This reduced pressure is called the "hydraulic." The hydraulic pressure can never exceed the static pressure; nor can the volume of water flowing from an artesian well be ascertained by its pressure, or the height to which the water may rise over the top of the casing, any more than the pressure can be ascertained by knowing its volume.[d]

In the same report is announced the striking at Winton, at a depth of 3,235 ft. of a supply amounting to 100,000 gallons a day, at a temperature of 140 degrees. It was determined to continue sinking under a new contract.