Encyclopaedia Britannica Volume 3, Part 1, Slice 1 Part 1

Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition.

Volume 3, Part 1, Slice 1.

by Various.

VOLUME III

AUSTRIA, LOWER (Ger. _Niederosterreich_ or _osterreich unter der Enns_, "Austria below the river Enns"), an archduchy and crownland of Austria, bounded E. by Hungary, N. by Bohemia and Moravia, W. by Bohemia and Upper Austria, and S. by Styria. It has an area of 7654 sq. m. and is divided into two parts by the Danube, which enters at its most westerly point, and leaves it at its eastern extremity, near Pressburg. North of this line is the low hilly country, known as the _Waldviertel_, which lies at the foot and forms the continuation of the Bohemian and Moravian plateau. Towards the W. it attains in the Weinsberger Wald, of which the highest point is the Peilstein, an alt.i.tude of 3478 ft., and descends towards the valley of the Danube through the Gfohler Wald (2368 ft.) and the Manhartsgebirge (1758 ft.). Its most south-easterly offshoots are formed by the Bisamberg (1180 ft.), near Vienna, just opposite the Kahlenberg. The southern division of the province is, in the main, mountainous and hilly, and is occupied by the Lower Austrian Alps and their offshoots. The princ.i.p.al groups are: the Voralpe (5802 ft.), the Durrenstein (6156 ft.), the otscher (6205 ft.), the Raxalpe (6589 ft.) and the Schneeberg (6806 ft.), which is the highest summit in the whole province. To the E. of the famous ridge of Semmering are the groups of the Wechsel (5700 ft.) and the Leithagebirge (1674 ft.). The offshoots of the Alpine group are formed by the Wiener Wald, which attains an alt.i.tude of 2929 ft. in the Schopfl and ends N.W. of Vienna in the Kahlenberg (1404 ft.) and Leopoldsberg (1380 ft.).

Lower Austria belongs to the watershed of the Danube, which with the exception of the Lainsitz, which is a tributary of the Moldau, receives all the other rivers of the province. Its princ.i.p.al affluents on the right are: the Enns, Ybbs, Erlauf, Pielach, Traisen, Wien, Schwechat, Fischa and Leitha; on the left the Isper, Krems, Kamp, Gollersau and the March.

Besides the Danube, only the Enns and the March are navigable rivers.

Amongst the small Alpine lakes, the Erlaufsee and the Lunzer See are worth mentioning. Of its mineral springs, the best known are the sulphur springs of Baden, the iodine springs of Deutsch-Altenburg, the iron springs of Pyrawarth, and the thermal springs of Voslau. In general the climate, which varies with the configuration of the surface, is moderate and healthy, although subject to rapid changes of temperature. Although 43.4% of the total area is arable land, the soil is only of moderate fertility and does not satisfy the wants of this thickly-populated province. Woods occupy 34.2%, gardens and meadows 13.1% and pastures 3.2%. Vineyards occupy 2% of the total area and produce a good wine, specially those on the sunny slopes of the Wiener Wald. Cattle-rearing is not well developed, but game and fish are plentiful. Mining is only of slight importance, small quant.i.ties of coal and iron-ore being extracted in the Alpine foothill region; graphite is found near Muhldorf. From an industrial point of view, Lower Austria stands, together with Bohemia and Moravia, in the front rank amongst the Austrian provinces. The centre of its great industrial activity is the capital, Vienna (_q.v._); but in the region of the Wiener Wald up to the Semmering, owing to its many waters, which can be transformed into motive power, many factories are spread. The princ.i.p.al industries are, the metallurgic and textile industries in all their branches, milling, brewing and chemicals; paper, leather and silk; cloth, _objets de luxe_ and millinery; physical and musical instruments; sugar, tobacco factories and foodstuffs. The very extensive commerce of the province has also its centre in Vienna. The population of Lower Austria in 1900 was 3,100,493, which corresponds to 405 inhabitants per sq. m. It is, therefore, the most densely populated province of Austria. According to the language in common use, 95% of the population [v.03 p.0002] was German, 4.66% was Czech, and the remainder was composed of Poles, Slovaks, Ruthenians, Croatians and Italians. According to religion 92.47% of the inhabitants were Roman Catholics; 5.07% were Jews; 2.11% were Protestants and the remainder belonged to the Greek church. In the matter of education, Lower Austria is one of the most advanced provinces of Austria, and 99.8% of the children of school-going age attended school regularly in 1900. The local diet is composed of 78 members, of which the archbishop of Vienna, the bishop of St Polten and the rector of the Vienna University are members _ex officio_.

Lower Austria sends 64 members, to the Imperial Reichsrat at Vienna. For administrative purposes, the province is divided into 22 districts and three towns with autonomous munic.i.p.alities: Vienna (1,662,269), the capital (since 1905 including Floridsdorf, 36,599), Wiener-Neustadt (28,438) and Waidhofen on the Ybbs (4447). Other princ.i.p.al towns are: Baden (12,447), Bruck on the Leitha (5134), Schwechat (8241), Korneuburg (8298), Stokerau (10,213), Krems (12,657), Modling (15,304), Reichenau (7457), Neunkirchen (10,831), St Polten (14,510) and Klosterneuburg (11,595).

The original archduchy, which included Upper Austria, is the nucleus of the Austrian empire, and the oldest possession of the house of Habsburg in its present dominions.

See F. Umlauft, _Das Erzherzogtum osterreich unter der Enns_, vol. i. of the collection _Die Lander osterreich-Ungarns in Wort und Bild_ (Vienna, 1881-1889, 15 vols.); _Die osterreichisch-ungarische Monarchie in Wort und Bild_, vol. 4. (Vienna. 1886-1902, 24 vols.); M. Vansca, _Gesch. Nieder- u.

Ober-osterreichs_ (in Heeren's _Staatengesch._, Gotha, 1905).

AUSTRIA, UPPER (Ger. _Oberosterreich_ or _osterreich ob der Enns_, "Austria above the river Enns"), an archduchy and crown-land of Austria, bounded N.

by Bohemia, W. by Bavaria, S. by Salzburg and Styria, and E. by Lower Austria. It has an area of 4631 sq. m. Upper Austria is divided by the Danube into two unequal parts. Its smaller northern part is a prolongation of the southern angle of the Bohemian forest and contains as culminating points the Plocklstein (4510 ft.) and the Sternstein (3690 ft.). The southern part belongs to the region of the Eastern Alps, containing the Salzkammergut and Upper Austrian Alps, which are found princ.i.p.ally in the district of Salzkammergut (_q.v._). To the north of these mountains, stretching towards the Danube, is the Alpine foothill region, composed partly of terraces and partly of swelling undulations, of which the most important is the Hausruckwald. This is a wooded chain of mountains, with many branches, rich in brown coal and culminating in the Goblberg (2950 ft.). Upper Austria belongs to the watershed of the Danube, which flows through it from west to east, and receives here on the right the Inn with the Salzach, the Traun, the Enns with the Steyr and on its left the Great and Little Muhl rivers. The Schwarzenberg ca.n.a.l between the Great Muhl and the Moldau establishes a direct navigable route between the Danube and the Elbe. The climate of Upper Austria, which varies according to the alt.i.tude, is on the whole moderate; it is somewhat severe in the north, but is mild in Salzkammergut. The population of the duchy in 1900 was 809,918, which is equivalent to 174.8 inhabitants per sq. m. It has the greatest density of population of any of the Alpine provinces. The inhabitants are almost exclusively of German stock and Roman Catholics. For administrative purposes, Upper Austria is divided into two autonomous munic.i.p.alities, Linz (58,778) the capital, and Steyr (17,592) and 12 districts. Other princ.i.p.al towns are Wels (12,187), Ischl (9646) and Gmunden (7126). The local diet, of which the bishop of Linz is a member _ex officio_, is composed of 50 members and the duchy sends 22 members to the Reichsrat at Vienna. The soil in the valleys and on the lower slopes of the hills is fertile, indeed 35.08% of the whole area is arable. Agriculture is well developed and relatively large quant.i.ties of the princ.i.p.al cereals are produced. Upper Austria has the largest proportion of meadows in all Austria, 18.54%, while 2.49% is lowland and Alpine pasturage. Of the remainder, woods occupy 34.02%, gardens 1.99% and 4.93% is unproductive. Cattle-breeding is also in a very advanced stage and together with the timber-trade forms a considerable resource of the province. The princ.i.p.al mineral wealth of Upper Austria is salt, of which it extracts nearly 50% of the total Austrian production. Other important products are lignite, gypsum and a variety of valuable stones and clays. There are about thirty mineral springs, the best known being the salt baths of Ischl and the iodine waters at Hall. The princ.i.p.al industries are the iron and metal manufactures, chiefly centred at Steyr. Next in importance are the machine, linen, cotton and paper manufactures, the milling, brewing and distilling industries and s.h.i.+pbuilding. The princ.i.p.al articles of export are salt, stone, timber, live-stock, woollen and iron wares and paper.

See Edlbacher, _Landeskunde von Oberosterreich_ (Linz, 2nd ed., 1883); Vansca, _op. cit._ in the preceding article.

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, or the AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN MONARCHY (Ger.

_osterreichisch-ungarische Monarchie_ or _osterreichisch-ungarisches Reich_), the official name of a country situated in central Europe, bounded E. by Russia and Rumania, S. by Rumania, Servia, Turkey and Montenegro, W.

by the Adriatic Sea, Italy, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, and the German Empire, and N. by the German Empire and Russia. It occupies about the sixteenth part of the total area of Europe, with an area (1905) of 239,977 sq. m. The monarchy consists of two independent states: the kingdoms and lands represented in the council of the empire (_Reichsrat_), unofficially called Austria (_q.v._) or Cisleithania; and the "lands of St Stephen's Crown," unofficially called Hungary (_q.v._) or Transleithania. It received its actual name by the diploma of the emperor Francis Joseph I. of the 14th of November 1868, replacing the name of the Austrian Empire under which the dominions under his sceptre were formerly known. The Austro-Hungarian monarchy is very often called unofficially the Dual Monarchy. It had in 1901 a population of 45,405,267 inhabitants, comprising therefore within its borders, about one-eighth of the total population of Europe. By the Berlin Treaty of 1878 the princ.i.p.alities of Bosnia and Herzegovina with an area of 19,702 sq. m., and a population (1895) of 1,591,036 inhabitants, owning Turkey as suzerain, were placed under the administration of Austria-Hungary, and their annexation in 1908 was recognized by the Powers in 1909, so that they became part of the dominions of the monarchy.

_Government_.--The present const.i.tution of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy (see AUSTRIA) is based on the Pragmatic Sanction of the emperor Charles VI., first promulgated on the 19th of April 1713, whereby the succession to the throne is settled in the dynasty of Habsburg-Lorraine, descending by right of primogeniture and lineal succession to male heirs, and, in case of their extinction, to the female line, and whereby the indissolubility and indivisibility of the monarchy are determined; is based, further, on the diploma of the emperor Francis Joseph I. of the 20th of October 1860, whereby the const.i.tutional form of government is introduced; and, lastly, on the so-called _Ausgleich_ or "Compromise," concluded on the 8th of February 1867, whereby the relations between Austria and Hungary were regulated.

The two separate states--Austria and Hungary--are completely independent of each other, and each has its own parliament and its own government. The unity of the monarchy is expressed in the common head of the state, who bears the t.i.tle Emperor of Austria and Apostolic King of Hungary, and in the common administration of a series of affairs, which affect both halves of the Dual Monarchy. These are: (1) foreign affairs, including diplomatic and consular representation abroad; (2) the army, including the navy, but excluding the annual voting of recruits, and the special army of each state; (3) finance in so far as it concerns joint expenditure.

For the administration of these common affairs there are three joint ministries: the ministry of foreign affairs and of the imperial and royal house, the ministry of war, and the ministry of finance. It must be noted that the authority of the joint ministers is restricted to common affairs, and that they are not allowed to direct or exercise any influence on affairs of government affecting separately one of the halves of the monarchy. [v.03 p.0003] The minister of foreign affairs conducts the international relations of the Dual Monarchy, and can conclude international treaties. But commercial treaties, and such state treaties as impose burdens on the state, or parts of the state, or involve a change of territory, require the parliamentary a.s.sent of both states. The minister of war is the head for the administration of all military affairs, except those of the Austrian _Landwehr_ and of the Hungarian _Honveds_, which are committed to the ministries for national defence of the two respective states. But the supreme command of the army is vested in the monarch, who has the power to take all measures regarding the whole army. It follows, therefore, that the total armed power of the Dual Monarchy forms a whole under the supreme command of the sovereign. The minister of finance has charge of the finances of common affairs, prepares the joint budget, and administers the joint state debt. (Till 1909 the provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina were also administered by the joint minister of finance, excepting matters exclusively dependent on the minister of war.) For the control of the common finances, there is appointed a joint supreme court of accounts, which audits the accounts of the joint ministries.

_Budget_.--Side by side with the budget of each state of the Dual Monarchy, there is a common budget, which comprises the expenditure necessary for the common affairs, namely for the conduct of foreign affairs, for the army, and for the ministry of finance. The revenues of the joint budget consist of the revenues of the joint ministries, the net proceeds of the customs, and the quota, or the proportional contributions of the two states. This quota is fixed for a period of years, and generally coincides with the duration of the customs and commercial treaty. Until 1897 Austria contributed 70%, and Hungary 30% of the joint expenditure, remaining after-deduction of the common revenue. It was then decided that from 1897 to July 1907 the quota should be 66-46/49 for Austria, and 33-2/49 for Hungary. In 1907 Hungary's contribution was raised to 36.4%. Of the total charges 2% is first of all debited to Hungary on account of the incorporation with this state of the former military frontier.

The Budget estimates for the common administration were as follows in 1905:--

_Revenue_-- Ministry of Foreign Affairs 21,167 Ministry of War 305,907 Ministry of Finance 4,870 Board of Control 18 The Customs 4,780,000 Proportional contributions 15,650,448 ----------- Total 20,762,410 ===========

_Expenditure_-- Ministry of Foreign Affairs 485,480 Ministry of War:-- Army 12,679,160 Navy 2,306,100 Ministry of Finance 177,000 Board of Control 13,250 Extraordinary Military Expenditure 4,785,500 Extraordinary Military Expenditure in Bosnia 315,920 ----------- Total 20,762,410 ===========

The following table gives in thousands sterling the joint budget for the years 1875-1905:--

_Expenditure._

1875. 1885. 1895. 1900. 1905.

Ministry of Foreign Affairs 396 368.7 333 433.4 493.8 Ministry of War 9005.4 10,085 12,539 13,887.5 18,087.7 (Army and Navy) Ministry of Finance 154.2 167.2 170.4 175 177.1 Supreme Court of Accounts 10.5 10.6 10.7 12.5 13.3 Total 9566.1 10,631.5 13,053.1 14,508.4 20,430.3

_Revenue._

For the above Departments 432 258.2 260.7 260.3 331.9 Customs 997.4 402.2 4476 5202.3 4799.7 Proportional Contributions 8136.7 9971.1 8316.4 9045.8 15,650.4 Total 9566.1 10,631.5 13,053.1 14,508.4 20,430.3

_Debt._--Besides the debts of each state of the Dual Monarchy, there is a general debt, which is borne jointly by Austria and Hungary. The following table gives in millions sterling the amount of the general debt for the years 1875-1905:--

1875. 1885. 1895. 1900. 1905.

232.41 231.02 229.67 226.81 224.31

_Delegations_.--The const.i.tutional right of voting money applicable to the common affairs and of its political control is exercised by the Delegations, which consist each of sixty members, chosen for one year, one-third of them by the Austrian Herrenhaus (Upper House) and the Hungarian Table of Magnates (Upper House), and two-thirds of them by the Austrian and the Hungarian Houses of Representatives. The delegations are annually summoned by the monarch alternately to Vienna and to Budapest.

Each delegation has its separate sittings, both alike public. Their decisions are reciprocally communicated in writing, and, in case of non-agreement, their deliberations are renewed. Should three such interchanges be made without agreement, a common plenary sitting is held of an equal number of both delegations; and these collectively, without discussion, decide the question by common vote. The common decisions of both houses require for their validity the sanction of the monarch. Each delegation has the right to formulate resolutions independently, and to call to account and arraign the common ministers. In the exercise of their office the members of both delegations are irresponsible, enjoying const.i.tutional immunity.

_Army_.--The military system of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy is similar in both states, and rests since 1868 upon the principle of the universal and personal obligation of the citizen to bear arms. Its military force is composed of the common army (_K. und K._); the special armies, namely the Austrian (_K.K._) _Landwehr_, and the Hungarian _Honveds_, which are separate national inst.i.tutions, and the _Landsturm_ or levy-in-ma.s.s. As stated above, the common army stands under the administration of the joint minister of war, while the special armies are under the administration of the respective ministries of national defence. The yearly contingent of recruits for the army is fixed by the military bills voted by the Austrian and Hungarian parliaments, and is generally determined on the basis of the population, according to the last census returns. It amounted in 1905 to 103,100 men, of which Austria furnished 59,211 men, and Hungary 43,889.

Besides 10,000 men are annually allotted to the Austrian Landwehr, and 12,500 to the Hungarian Honveds. The term of service is 2 years (3 years in the cavalry) with the colours, 7 or 8 in the reserve and 2 in the Landwehr; in the case of men not drafted to the active army the same total period of service is spent in various special reserves.

For the military and administrative service of the army the Dual Monarchy is divided into 16 military territorial districts (15 of which correspond to the 15 army corps) and 108 supplementary districts (105 for the army, and 3 for the navy). In 1902, since which year no material change was made in the formal organization of the army, there were 5 cavalry divisions and 31 infantry divisions, formed in 15 army corps, which are located as follows:--I. Cracow, II. Vienna, III. Graz, IV. Budapest, V. Pressburg, VI.

Kaschau, VII. Temesvar, VIII. Prague, IX. Josefstadt, X. Przemysl, XI. Lemberg, XII. Herrmannstadt, XIII. Agram, XIV. Innsbruck, XV. Serajewo.

In addition there is the military district of Zara. The usual strength of the corps is, 2 infantry divisions (4 brigades, 8 or 9 regiments, 32 or 36 battalions), 1 cavalry brigade (18 squadrons), and 1 artillery brigade (16-18 batteries or 128-144 field-guns), besides technical and departmental units and in some cases fortress artillery regiments. The infantry is organized into line regiments, Jager and Tirolese regiments, the cavalry into dragoons, lancers, Uhlans and hussars, the artillery into regiments.

The Austrian _Landwehr_ (which retains the old designation _K.K._, formerly [v.03 p.0004] applied to the Austrian regular army) is organized in 8 divisions of varying strength, the "Royal Hungarian" Landwehr or Honveds in 7 divisions, both Austrian and Hungarian Landwehr having in addition cavalry (Uhlans and hussars) and artillery. It is probable that a Landwehr or Honveds division will, in war, form part of each army corps except in the case of the Vienna corps, which has 3 divisions in peace. The remaining men of military age (up to 42) as usual form the _Landsturm_. It is to be noted that this Landsturm comprises many men who would elsewhere be cla.s.sed as Landwehr.

The strength of the Austro-Hungarian army on a peace footing was as follows in 1905:--

+-----------------------------+---------+---------+---------+--------+ Officers. Men. Horses. Guns. +-----------------------------+---------+---------+---------+--------+ Infantry-- Common Army 10,801 187,604 1,152 .. Austrian Landwehr 1,883 23,905 174 .. Hungarian Honveds 2,258 21,149 262 .. Cavalry-- Common Army 1,890 45,486 40,740 .. Austrian Landwehr 170 1,861 1,282 .. Hungarian Honveds 390 4,170 3,510 .. Field Artillery 1,630 27,612 14,520 1,048 Fortress Artillery 408 7,722 131 .. Technical troops 588 9,935 19 .. (Pioneers, and Railway and Telegraph Regiment) Transport Service 461 4,312 3,097 .. Sanitary Service 85 3,062 .. .. ------ ------- ------ ------ Total 20,564 336,818 64,887 1,048 Belonging to the Common Army 15,863 285,733 59,659 1,048 Austrian Landwehr 2,053 25,766 1,456 .. Hungarian Honveds 2,648 25,319 3,772 .. +-----------------------------+---------+---------+---------+--------+

The troops stationed in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1905 (376 officers and 6372 men) are included in the total for the common army.

The peace strength of the active army in combatants is thus about 350,000 officers and men, inclusive of the two Landwehrs and of the Austrian "K.K."

guards, the Hungarian crown guards, the gendarmerie, &c. The numbers of the Landsturm and the war strength of the whole armed forces are not published.

It is estimated that the first line army in war would consist of 460,000 infantry, 49,000 cavalry, 78,000 artillery, 21,000 engineers, &c., beside train and non-combatant soldiers. The Landwehr and Honved would yield 219,000 infantry and 18,000 cavalry, and other reserves 223,000 men. These figures give an approximate total strength of 1,147,000, not inclusive of Landsturm.

_Fortifications._--The princ.i.p.al fortifications in Austria-Hungary are: Cracow and Przemysl in Galicia; Komarom, the centre of the inland fortifications, Petervarad, o-Arad and Temesvar in Hungary; Serajewo, Mostar and Bilek in Bosnia-Herzegovina. The Alpine frontiers, especially those in Tirol, have numerous fortifications, whose centre is formed by Trent and Franzensfeste; while all the military roads leading into Carinthia have been provided with strong defensive works, as at Malborgeth, Predil Pa.s.s, &c. The two capitals, Vienna and Budapest, are not fortified.

On the Adriatic coast, the naval harbour of Pola is strongly fortified with sea and land defences; then come Trieste, and several places in Dalmatia, notably Zara and Cattaro.

_Navy._--The Austro-Hungarian navy is mainly a coast defence force, and includes also a flotilla of monitors for the Danube. It is administered by the naval department of the ministry of war. It consisted in 1905 of 9 modern battles.h.i.+ps, 3 armoured cruisers, 5 cruisers, 4 torpedo gunboats, 20 destroyers and 26 torpedo boats. There was in hand at the same time a naval programme to build 12 armourclads, 5 second-cla.s.s cruisers, 6 third-cla.s.s cruisers, and a number of torpedo boats. The headquarters of the fleet are at Pola, which is the princ.i.p.al naval a.r.s.enal and harbour of Austria; while another great naval station is Trieste.

_Trade._--On the basis of the customs and commercial agreement between Austria and Hungary, concluded in 1867 and renewable every ten years, the following affairs, in addition to the common affairs of the monarchy, are in both states treated according to the same principles:--Commercial affairs, including customs legislation; legislation on the duties closely connected with industrial production--on beer, brandy, sugar and mineral oils; determination of legal tender and coinage, as also of the principles regulating the Austro-Hungarian Bank; ordinances in respect of such railways as affect the interests of both states. In conformity with the customs and commercial compact between the two states, renewed in 1899, the monarchy const.i.tutes one identical customs and commercial territory, inclusive of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the princ.i.p.ality of Liechtenstein.

The foreign trade of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy is shown in the following table:--

+--------+-------------+-------------+ Year. Imports. Exports. +--------+-------------+-------------+ 1900 70,666,000 80,916,000 1901 68,833,000 78,841,000 1902 71,666,000 79,708,000 1903 78,200,000 88,600,000 1904 85,200,000 86,200,000 1905 89,430,000 93,500,000 +--------+-------------+-------------+

The following tables give the foreign trade of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy as regards raw material and manufactured goods:--

_Imports._ +---------------------------------------------------------------+ Value in Millions Sterling. +----------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+ Articles. 1900. 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. +----------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+ Raw material (including articles of food; raw material for agriculture 41.5 40.5 41.8 45.9 51.9 and industry; and mining and smelting products. Semi-manufactured goods 9.6 9.6 10.3 10.6 10.8 Manufactured Goods 19.5 18.7 19.5 21.6 22.5 +----------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+

_Exports._ +---------------------------------------------------------------+ Value in Millions Sterling. +----------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+ Articles. 1900. 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. +----------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+ Raw material (as above) 34.1 34.1 35.9 39 35.3 Semi-manufactured goods 12.6 11.1 11.1 12.4 12.6 Manufactured goods. 34.2 33.3 32.8 37.2 38.3 +----------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+