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1. learn learning 2. invent invention 3. choose choice 4. defend defense 5. try trial 6. judge judgment 7. read reading 8. please pleasure 9. elect election 10. move motion
+66.+ An abstract noun is also the name of a condition. These nouns are derived from the concrete noun which is the name of the person or thing which is _in_ the condition.
+Concrete Nouns+ +Abstract Nouns+
1. slave slavery 2. friend friends.h.i.+p 3. thief theft 4. man manhood 5. child childhood 6. leader leaders.h.i.+p 7. hero heroism 8. martyr martyrdom
Exercise 2
Form abstract nouns from the following adjectives, verbs and nouns.
long simple rapid lovely loyal fresh prove sing run behave believe reflect write child agent infant rascal clerk president coward
NUMBER FORM
+67.+ So we find that we cla.s.sify our nouns according to the special work which they do. Now sometimes we find it necessary to change the form of the noun to make it express our thought. Thus we say, _book_, _man_, _boy_, _knife_, when we wish to express the idea of only one of each object mentioned. But when we wish to express the idea of more than one of them, we say, _books_, _men_, _boys_, _knives_.
We say, _The boy calls_; _the boys call_. The form of the noun _boy_ is changed by adding an _s_ to it. The meaning has also changed. _Boy_ denotes one lad; _boys_ denotes two or more lads. Any change in form and meaning of words is called _inflection_. The change to denote more than one object is called _number_. The word _boy_, denoting _one_ is in the _singular number_; the word _boys_, denoting _more than one_ is in the _plural number_.
+68.+ +Inflection is a change in the form of a word to denote a different application or use.+
+Number is the form of a noun which shows whether it denotes one or more than one.+
+The singular number denotes one thing.+
+The plural number denotes more than one thing.+
There are a few rules governing the formation of plurals which we must know, and these rules are of great a.s.sistance in correct spelling.
+69.+ Most nouns form their plural by adding _s_--thus:
boat boats
day days
book books
boy boys
Long ago in early English all plurals were formed by adding _es_, and you will read in the first translation of the Bible, for instance, such words as _bird-es_, _cloud-es_. Later the _e_ was dropped and _s_ added to the singular without an increase of syllables. But when the singular ends in an _s_ sound, the original syllable _es_ is retained, for two hissing sounds will not unite.
+70.+ So nouns ending in _s_, _x_, _z_, _sh_ or soft _ch_, form the plural by adding _es_ to the singular. These words end with a sound so much like that of _s_ that we cannot p.r.o.nounce the plural easily without making another syllable. Thus:
cla.s.s cla.s.ses
tax taxes
topaz topazes
wish wishes
ditch ditches
+71.+ In words ending with the _s_ sound but with a final _e_, only _s_ is added to form the plural, but in p.r.o.nouncing the word we then have two syllables, thus:
house houses
place places
size sizes
cage cages
niche niches
+72.+ Letters, figures, signs, etc., are made plural by adding an apostrophe and the letter _s_ ('s), thus:
Cross your t's and dot your i's.
Do you know the table of 4's?
While most of our nouns form their plural in this regular way by adding _s_ or _es_, there are some nouns that form their plural by some other change in the form of the word.
+73.+ Notice the following list of words and their plurals:
fly flies city cities key keys day days story stories enemy enemies tray trays boy boys
These nouns all end in _y_, yet they form the plural differently. Some simply add _s_ and the rest change the _y_ to _i_ and add _es_. Can you discover the reason?
Wherever the _y_ is preceded by a vowel, as _e_ in _key_, _a_ in _tray_, _o_ in _boy_, the plural is formed by adding _s_. But when the _y_ is preceded by a consonant, as _l_ in _fly_, _r_ in _story_, _t_ in _city_, and _m_ in _enemy_, the _y_ is changed to _i_ and _es_ added in forming the plural.
+If the singular ends in _y_ after a consonant, change _y_ to _i_ and add _es_ in the plural.+
+74.+ There are thirteen nouns ending in _f_ and three in _fe_ which form the plural in _ves_. They are:
beef beeves calf calves elf elves half halves leaf leaves loaf loaves self selves sheaf sheaves shelf shelves staff staves thief thieves wharf wharves wolf wolves knife knives life lives wife wives
All other nouns in _f_ or _fe_ are regular; adding only _s_, to form the plural.
+75.+ About forty nouns ending in _o_ after a consonant form the plural in _es_. The most common ones are:
buffalo cargo potato tomato negro veto cargo echo calico embargo hero mulatto mosquito motto tornado volcano torpedo flamingo
Most nouns ending in _o_ form the plural regularly, adding only _s_, as _pianos_, _banjos_, _cameos_, etc.
+76.+ A few words form their plurals by a change in the word and without adding _s_ or _es_.
The most common of these words are:
