The Origins Of Political Order Part 15

6.Thomas Carothers, "The End of the Transition Paradigm," Journal of Democracy Journal of Democracy 13, no. 1 (2002): 521. 13, no. 1 (2002): 521.

7.In constant 2008 dollars, the world economy went from $15.93 trillion to $61.1 trillion from 1970 to 2008. Sources: World Bank Development Indicators and Global Development Finance; U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

8.Francis f.u.kuyama and Seth Colby, "What Were They Thinking? The Role of Economists in the Financial Debacle," American Interest American Interest 5, no. 1 (2009): 1825. 5, no. 1 (2009): 1825.

9.Fareed Zakaria, The Post-American World The Post-American World (New York: Norton, 2008); for a critique, see Aaron L. Friedberg, "Same Old Songs: What the Declinists (and Triumphalists) Miss," (New York: Norton, 2008); for a critique, see Aaron L. Friedberg, "Same Old Songs: What the Declinists (and Triumphalists) Miss," American Interest American Interest 5, no. 2 (2009). 5, no. 2 (2009).

10.William A. Galston, Can a Polarized American Party System Be "Healthy"? Can a Polarized American Party System Be "Healthy"? (Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C.: Brookings Inst.i.tution Issues in Governance Studies No. 34, April 2010). (Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C.: Brookings Inst.i.tution Issues in Governance Studies No. 34, April 2010).

11.See the chapters by Thomas E. Mann and Gary Jacobson in Pietro S. Nivola and David W. Brady, eds., Red and Blue Nation? Red and Blue Nation? Vol. 1 (Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C.: Brookings Inst.i.tution Press, 2006); also James A. Thomson, Vol. 1 (Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C.: Brookings Inst.i.tution Press, 2006); also James A. Thomson, A House Divided: Polarization and Its Effect on RAND A House Divided: Polarization and Its Effect on RAND (Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, 2010). There is some debate on exactly how polarized the American public is; on many cultural issues, like abortion and guns, there is a broad centrist group without strong convictions, with far more committed minorities at either end of the spectrum. See Morris P. Fiorina et al., eds., (Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, 2010). There is some debate on exactly how polarized the American public is; on many cultural issues, like abortion and guns, there is a broad centrist group without strong convictions, with far more committed minorities at either end of the spectrum. See Morris P. Fiorina et al., eds., Culture War? The Myth of a Polarized America Culture War? The Myth of a Polarized America, 3rd ed. (Boston: Longman, 2010).

12.The phenomenon of broader communications bandwidth leading to the increasing compartmentalization of political discourse was predicted some years ago by Ithiel de Sola Pool, Technologies of Freedom Technologies of Freedom (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1983). (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1983).

13.See, for example, Isabel V. Sawhill and Ron Haskins, Getting Ahead or Losing Ground: Economic Mobility in America Getting Ahead or Losing Ground: Economic Mobility in America (Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C. : Brookings Inst.i.tution Press, 2008). (Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C. : Brookings Inst.i.tution Press, 2008).

14.Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, "A Family Affair: Intergenerational Social Mobility Across OECD Countries," in Going for Growth Going for Growth (Paris: OECD, 2010); Emily Beller and Michael Hout, "Intergeneration Social Mobility: The United States in Comparative Perspective," (Paris: OECD, 2010); Emily Beller and Michael Hout, "Intergeneration Social Mobility: The United States in Comparative Perspective," Future of Children Future of Children 16, no. 2 (2006): 1936; Chul-In Lee and Gary Solon, "Trends in Intergenerational Income Mobility," 16, no. 2 (2006): 1936; Chul-In Lee and Gary Solon, "Trends in Intergenerational Income Mobility," Review of Economics and Statistics Review of Economics and Statistics 91, no. 4 (2009): 76672. 91, no. 4 (2009): 76672.

15.Simon Johnson, "The Quiet Coup," Atlantic Atlantic, May 2009.

16.Amartya K. Sen, "Democracy as a Universal Value," Journal of Democracy Journal of Democracy 10 (1999): 317. 10 (1999): 317.

17.Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri, Mult.i.tude: War and Democracy in the Age of Empire Mult.i.tude: War and Democracy in the Age of Empire (New York: Penguin, 2004). Part of the maturing of an important part of the Left that occurred in the second half of the twentieth century was the acceptance of the Italian socialist Antonio Gramsci's observation that achievement of a progressive agenda required a "long march through inst.i.tutions," a slogan adopted by the German Greens as they sought to partic.i.p.ate in Germany's democratic political process. (New York: Penguin, 2004). Part of the maturing of an important part of the Left that occurred in the second half of the twentieth century was the acceptance of the Italian socialist Antonio Gramsci's observation that achievement of a progressive agenda required a "long march through inst.i.tutions," a slogan adopted by the German Greens as they sought to partic.i.p.ate in Germany's democratic political process.

18.See Bronislaw Geremek, "Civil Society, Then and Now," in Larry Diamond and Marc F. Plattner, eds., The Global Resurgence of Democracy The Global Resurgence of Democracy, 2d ed. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996).

19.See Charles Gati, "Faded Romance," American Interest American Interest 4, no. 2 (2008): 3543. 4, no. 2 (2008): 3543.

20.Walter B. Wriston, The Twilight of Sovereignty The Twilight of Sovereignty (New York: Scribner, 1992). (New York: Scribner, 1992).

21.This can be read, among other places, at http://w2.eff.org/Censors.h.i.+p/Internet_censors.h.i.+p_bills/barlow_0296.declaration.

22.See the chapter "The Golden Straitjacket" in Thomas L. Friedman, The Lexus and the Olive Tree The Lexus and the Olive Tree (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1999), pp. 99108. (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1999), pp. 99108.

23.See, for example, Ron Paul, End the Fed End the Fed (New York: Grand Central Publis.h.i.+ng, 2009); Charles Murray, (New York: Grand Central Publis.h.i.+ng, 2009); Charles Murray, What It Means to Be a Libertarian: A Personal Interpretation What It Means to Be a Libertarian: A Personal Interpretation (New York: Broadway Books, 1997). (New York: Broadway Books, 1997).

24.See Francis f.u.kuyama, ed., Nation-Building: Beyond Afghanistan and Iraq Nation-Building: Beyond Afghanistan and Iraq (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006). (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006).

25."Getting to Denmark" was actually the original t.i.tle of Lant Pritchett and Michael Woolc.o.c.k's "Solutions When the Solution Is the Problem: Arraying the Disarray in Development" (Was.h.i.+ngton, D.C.: Center for Global Development Working Paper 10, 2002).

26.Economic growth theories under t.i.tles like Harrod-Domar, Solow, and endogenous growth theory, are severely reductionist and are of questionable value in explaining how growth actually happens in developing countries.

27.A number of observers have made this argument, beginning with Herbert Spencer in the nineteenth century, continuing through Werner Sombart, John Nef, and Charles Tilly. See Herbert Spencer, The Principles of Sociology The Principles of Sociology (New York: D. Appleton, 1896); John Ulric Nef, (New York: D. Appleton, 1896); John Ulric Nef, War and Human Progress: An Essay on the Rise of Industrial Civilization War and Human Progress: An Essay on the Rise of Industrial Civilization (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1942); Charles Tilly, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1942); Charles Tilly, Coercion, Capital, and European States, A D 9901990 Coercion, Capital, and European States, A D 9901990 (Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1990); and Bruce D. Porter, (Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1990); and Bruce D. Porter, War and the Rise of the State: The Military Foundations of Modern Politics War and the Rise of the State: The Military Foundations of Modern Politics (New York: Free Press, 1994). (New York: Free Press, 1994).

2: THE STATE OF NATURE.

1.These arguments are made by Thomas Hobbes. His second law of nature states, "That a man be willing, when others are so too, as farre-forth, as for Peace, and defence of himselfe he shall think it necessary, to lay down this right to all things; and be contented with so much liberty against other men, as he would allow other men against himselfe." Leviathan Parts I and II Leviathan Parts I and II (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1958), chaps. 13 and 14. (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1958), chaps. 13 and 14.

2.John Locke, Second Treatise on Government Second Treatise on Government (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1952), chap. 2, sec. 6. (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1952), chap. 2, sec. 6.

3.Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Discourse on the Origin and the Foundation of Inequality Among Mankind Discourse on the Origin and the Foundation of Inequality Among Mankind (New York: St. Martin's Press, 2010), part 1. (New York: St. Martin's Press, 2010), part 1.

4.Henry Maine, Ancient Law: Its Connection with the Early History of Society and Its Relation to Modern Ideas Ancient Law: Its Connection with the Early History of Society and Its Relation to Modern Ideas (Boston: Beacon Press, 1963), chap. 5. A similar point is made in Karl Polanyi, (Boston: Beacon Press, 1963), chap. 5. A similar point is made in Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation The Great Transformation (New York: Rinehart, 1944), p. 48. (New York: Rinehart, 1944), p. 48.

5.William D. Hamilton, "The Genetic Evolution of Social Behavior," Journal of Theoretical Biology Journal of Theoretical Biology 7 (1964): 1752. This point was elaborated by Richard Dawkins in 7 (1964): 1752. This point was elaborated by Richard Dawkins in The Selfish Gene The Selfish Gene (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989). (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989).

6.P. W. Sherman, "Nepotism and the Evolution of Alarm Calls," Science Science 197 (1977): 124653. 197 (1977): 124653.

7.For a more detailed account of the game theoretic grounds of social cooperation, see Francis f.u.kuyama, The Great Disruption: Human Nature and the Reconst.i.tution of Social Order The Great Disruption: Human Nature and the Reconst.i.tution of Social Order (New York: Free Press, 1999), chap. 10; and Matt Ridley, (New York: Free Press, 1999), chap. 10; and Matt Ridley, The Origins of Virtue: Human Instincts and the Evolution of Cooperation The Origins of Virtue: Human Instincts and the Evolution of Cooperation (New York: Viking, 1987). (New York: Viking, 1987).

8.Robert Axelrod, The Evolution of Cooperation The Evolution of Cooperation (New York: Basic Books, 1984). (New York: Basic Books, 1984).

9.Robert Trivers, "The Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism," Quarterly Review of Biology Quarterly Review of Biology 46 (1971): 3556. 46 (1971): 3556.

10.Jerome H. Barkow, Leda Cosmides, and John Tooby, eds., The Adapted Mind: Evolutionary Psychology and the Generation of Culture The Adapted Mind: Evolutionary Psychology and the Generation of Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), pp. 16769. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), pp. 16769.

11.This is described in Trivers, "Reciprocal Altruism," pp. 4748.

12.Nicholas Wade, Before the Dawn: Recovering the Lost History of Our Ancestors Before the Dawn: Recovering the Lost History of Our Ancestors (New York: Penguin, 2006), pp. 7, 1321. (New York: Penguin, 2006), pp. 7, 1321.

13.Richard Wrangham and Dale Peterson, Demonic Males: Apes and the Origins of Human Violence Demonic Males: Apes and the Origins of Human Violence (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1996), p. 24. The term "male bonding" was originally coined by the anthropologist Lionel Tiger; see (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1996), p. 24. The term "male bonding" was originally coined by the anthropologist Lionel Tiger; see Men in Groups Men in Groups (New York: Random House, 1969). (New York: Random House, 1969).

14.Steven A. LeBlanc and Katherine E. Register, Constant Battles: The Myth of the n.o.ble Savage Constant Battles: The Myth of the n.o.ble Savage (New York: St. Martin's Press, 2003), p. 83. (New York: St. Martin's Press, 2003), p. 83.

15.Frans de Waal, Chimpanzee Politics: Power and s.e.x Among Apes Chimpanzee Politics: Power and s.e.x Among Apes (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989), chap. 2. See also his book (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989), chap. 2. See also his book Good Natured: The Origins of Right and Wrong in Humans and Other Animals Good Natured: The Origins of Right and Wrong in Humans and Other Animals (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997). (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997).

16.de Waal, Chimpanzee Politics Chimpanzee Politics, p. 87.

17.Ibid., p. 56.

18.Ibid., p. 66.

19.Ibid., p. 42.

20.N. K. Humphrey, "The Social Function of Intellect," in P.P.G. Bateson and R. A. Hinde, Growing Points in Ethology Growing Points in Ethology (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1976), pp. 30317; Richard Alexander, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1976), pp. 30317; Richard Alexander, How Did Humans Evolve?: Reflections on the Uniquely Unique Species How Did Humans Evolve?: Reflections on the Uniquely Unique Species (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1990), pp. 47; Richard D. Alexander, "The Evolution of Social Behavior," (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1990), pp. 47; Richard D. Alexander, "The Evolution of Social Behavior," Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 5 (1974): 32585. 5 (1974): 32585.

21.Geoffrey Miller, The Mating Mind: How s.e.xual Choice Shaped the Evolution of Human Nature The Mating Mind: How s.e.xual Choice Shaped the Evolution of Human Nature (New York: Doubleday, 2000); Geoffrey Miller and Glenn Geher, (New York: Doubleday, 2000); Geoffrey Miller and Glenn Geher, Mating Intelligence: s.e.x, Relations.h.i.+ps, and the Mind's Reproductive System Mating Intelligence: s.e.x, Relations.h.i.+ps, and the Mind's Reproductive System (New York: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2008). (New York: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2008).

22.Steven Pinker and Paul Bloom, "Natural Language and Natural Selection," Behavioral and Brain Sciences Behavioral and Brain Sciences 13 (1990): 70784. 13 (1990): 70784.

23.George E. Pugh, The Biological Origin of Human Values The Biological Origin of Human Values (New York: Basic Books, 1977), pp. 14043. (New York: Basic Books, 1977), pp. 14043.

24.For a compilation of evidence on the universality of religion, see Nicholas Wade, The Faith Instinct: How Religion Evolved and Why It Endures The Faith Instinct: How Religion Evolved and Why It Endures (New York: Penguin, 2009), pp. 1837. (New York: Penguin, 2009), pp. 1837.

25.See, for example, Christopher Hitchens, G.o.d Is Not Great: How Religion Poisons Everything G.o.d Is Not Great: How Religion Poisons Everything (New York: Twelve, 2007); and Richard Dawkins, (New York: Twelve, 2007); and Richard Dawkins, The G.o.d Delusion The G.o.d Delusion (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2006). (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2006).

26.Mancur Olson, The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1965). (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1965).

27.See Wade, Faith Instinct Faith Instinct, chap. 5.

28.This view is especially a.s.sociated with emile Durkheim. See The Elementary Forms of Religious Life The Elementary Forms of Religious Life (New York: Free Press, 1965). For a critique, see the chapter on Durkheim in E. E. Evans-Pritchard, (New York: Free Press, 1965). For a critique, see the chapter on Durkheim in E. E. Evans-Pritchard, A History of Anthropological Thought A History of Anthropological Thought (New York: Basic Books, 1981). (New York: Basic Books, 1981).

29.See, for example, Steven Pinker, How the Mind Works How the Mind Works (New York: Norton, 1997), pp. 55458. (New York: Norton, 1997), pp. 55458.

30.According to Dougla.s.s North, "While we observe people disobeying the rules of a society when the benefits exceed the costs, we also observe them obeying the rules when an individualistic calculus would have them do otherwise. Why do people not litter the countryside? Why don't they cheat or steal when the likelihood of punishment is negligible compared to the benefits? ... Without an explicit theory of ideology or, more generally, of the sociology of knowledge there are immense gaps in our ability to account for either current allocation of resources or historical change. In addition to being unable to resolve the fundamental dilemma of the free rider problem we cannot explain the enormous investment that every society makes in legitimacy." Structure and Change in Economic History Structure and Change in Economic History (New York: Norton, 1981), pp. 4647. (New York: Norton, 1981), pp. 4647.

31.Trivers, "Reciprocal Altruism."

32.On this general topic, see Francis f.u.kuyama, The End of History and the Last Man The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992), chap. 1317. (New York: Free Press, 1992), chap. 1317.

33.Robert H. Frank, Choosing the Right Pond: Human Behavior and the Quest for Status Choosing the Right Pond: Human Behavior and the Quest for Status (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985). (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985).

34.Ibid., pp. 2125. Conversely, low-status human beings often suffer from chronic depression and have been successfully treated with Prozac, Zoloft, and other so-called selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, which increase levels of brain serotonin. See Roger D. Masters and Michael T. McGuire, The Neurotransmitter Revolution: Serotonin, Social Behavior, and the Law The Neurotransmitter Revolution: Serotonin, Social Behavior, and the Law (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1994), p. 10. (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1994), p. 10.

35.On this issue, see Francis f.u.kuyama, "Ident.i.ty, Immigration, and Liberal Democracy," Journal of Democracy Journal of Democracy 17, no. 2 (2006): 520. 17, no. 2 (2006): 520.

36.See Charles Taylor, Sources of the Self: The Making of the Modern Ident.i.ty Sources of the Self: The Making of the Modern Ident.i.ty (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989). (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989).

37.Wade, Before the Dawn Before the Dawn, pp. 1617.

38.See R. Spencer Wells et al., "The Eurasian Heartland: A Continental Perspective on Y-Chromosome Diversity," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98, no. 18 (2001): 1024449. 98, no. 18 (2001): 1024449.

3: THE TYRANNY OF COUSINS.

1.Lewis Henry Morgan, Ancient Society; or, Researches in the Lines of Human Progress from Savagery, through Barbarism to Civilization Ancient Society; or, Researches in the Lines of Human Progress from Savagery, through Barbarism to Civilization (New York: Henry Holt, 1877); Edward B. Tylor, (New York: Henry Holt, 1877); Edward B. Tylor, Primitive Culture: Researches into the Development of Mythology, Philosophy, Religion, Language, Art, and Custom Primitive Culture: Researches into the Development of Mythology, Philosophy, Religion, Language, Art, and Custom (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1920). (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1920).

2.Friedrich Engels, The Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State, in Light of the Researches of Lewis H. Morgan The Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State, in Light of the Researches of Lewis H. Morgan (New York: International Publishers, 1942). (New York: International Publishers, 1942).

3.Herbert Spencer, The Principles of Biology The Principles of Biology (New York: D. Appleton, 1898); (New York: D. Appleton, 1898); The Principles of Sociology The Principles of Sociology.

4.See, for example, Madison Grant, The Pa.s.sing of the Great Race; or, the Racial Basis of European History The Pa.s.sing of the Great Race; or, the Racial Basis of European History, 4th rev. ed. (New York: Scribner's, 1921).

5.The cla.s.sic statement of this is given in Clifford Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures The Interpretation of Cultures (New York: Basic Books, 1973). (New York: Basic Books, 1973).

6.Leslie A. White, The Evolution of Culture: The Development of Civilization to the Fall of Rome The Evolution of Culture: The Development of Civilization to the Fall of Rome (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1959). (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1959).

7.Julian H. Steward, Theory of Culture Change: The Methodology of Multilinear Evolution Theory of Culture Change: The Methodology of Multilinear Evolution (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1963). (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1963).

8.Elman R. Service, Primitive Social Organization: An Evolutionary Perspective Primitive Social Organization: An Evolutionary Perspective. 2d ed. (New York: Random House, 1971). One early attempt to revive evolutionary thinking was V. Gordon Childe, Man Makes Himself Man Makes Himself (London: Watts and Co., 1936). (London: Watts and Co., 1936).

9.Morton H. Fried, The Evolution of Political Society: An Essay in Political Anthropology The Evolution of Political Society: An Essay in Political Anthropology (New York: Random House, 1967). (New York: Random House, 1967).

10.Marshall D. Sahlins and Elman R. Service, Evolution and Culture Evolution and Culture (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1960). (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1960).

11.For background on evolutionary theories, see Henri J. M. Claessen and Pieter van de Velde, "Social Evolution in General," in Claessen, van de Velde, and M. Estelle Smith, eds., Development and Decline: The Evolution of Sociopolitical Organization Development and Decline: The Evolution of Sociopolitical Organization (South Hadley, MA: Bergin and Garvey, 1985). (South Hadley, MA: Bergin and Garvey, 1985).

12.Sahlins and Service, Evolution and Culture Evolution and Culture, chap. 1.

13.Jonathan Haas, From Leaders to Rulers From Leaders to Rulers (New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, 2001). (New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, 2001).

14.Service, Primitive Social Organization Primitive Social Organization.

15.Numa Denis Fustel de Coulanges, The Ancient City The Ancient City (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1965); Henry Summer Maine, (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1965); Henry Summer Maine, Ancient Law Ancient Law (Boston: Beacon Press, 1963). (Boston: Beacon Press, 1963).

16.Fried, Evolution of Political Society Evolution of Political Society, pp. 4754. Much of what is known of this type of society is based on studies of indigenous American groups like the Algonkian or Shoshone Indians, which have since disappeared.

17.Ibid., pp. 9498.

18.See Ernest Gellner, "Nationalism and the Two Forms of Cohesion in Complex Societies," in Gellner, Culture, Ident.i.ty, and Politics Culture, Ident.i.ty, and Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987), pp. 628. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987), pp. 628.

19.Adam Kuper, The Chosen Primate: Human Nature and Cultural Diversity The Chosen Primate: Human Nature and Cultural Diversity (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994), pp. 22728. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994), pp. 22728.

20.Fried, Evolution of Political Society Evolution of Political Society, p. 83.

21.See the discussion ibid., pp. 9094.

22.Fried, Evolution of Political Society Evolution of Political Society, p. 69.

23.C. D. Forde, quoted in Service, Primitive Social Organization Primitive Social Organization, p. 61.

24.Ester Boserup, Population and Technological Change Population and Technological Change (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981), pp. 4042. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981), pp. 4042.

25.Ma.s.simo Livi-Bacci, A Concise History of World Population A Concise History of World Population (Oxford: Blackwell, 1997), p. 27. (Oxford: Blackwell, 1997), p. 27.

26.emile Durkheim, The Division of Labor in Society The Division of Labor in Society (New York: Macmillan, 1933), esp. chap. 6. Durkheim used the term "segmentary" much more broadly than I do here; indeed, probably too broadly to be more generally useful. He applied it to state-level societies at much higher levels of political development. For a critique, see Gellner, "Nationalism and the Two Forms of Cohesion in Complex Societies." (New York: Macmillan, 1933), esp. chap. 6. Durkheim used the term "segmentary" much more broadly than I do here; indeed, probably too broadly to be more generally useful. He applied it to state-level societies at much higher levels of political development. For a critique, see Gellner, "Nationalism and the Two Forms of Cohesion in Complex Societies."

27.In such societies, brother-sister and mother-daughter ties tend to be stronger than husband-wife and father-son relations.h.i.+ps. Service, Primitive Social Organization Primitive Social Organization, p. 115.

28.In Papua New Guinea, the highlanders are patrilineal, while many of the coastal groups are matrilineal; both systems produce equally strong tribal ident.i.ties. Ibid., pp. 11011.

29.E. E. Evans-Pritchard, The Nuer: A Description of the Modes of Livelihood and Political Inst.i.tutions of a Nilotic People The Nuer: A Description of the Modes of Livelihood and Political Inst.i.tutions of a Nilotic People (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940); and (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940); and Kins.h.i.+p and Marriage Among the Nuer Kins.h.i.+p and Marriage Among the Nuer (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1951). (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1951).

30.Evans-Pritchard, The Nuer The Nuer, p. 139.

31.Ibid., pp. 14243.

32.Ibid., p. 173.

33.For an example of how loose tribal identification can be, see Fried, Evolution of Political Society Evolution of Political Society, p. 157. Some agnatic tribes admit members under cognatic rules, particularly when it is politically advantageous to do so. Something similar often happened in Europe after the breakdown of the Roman Empire when circ.u.mstances dictated. The Salian law that governed much of Europe required strict agnatic inheritance, but when a monarch found himself with no male heirs and a strong-minded daughter, he could contrive to bend the rules to have succession go to her.

34.Fustel de Coulanges, The Ancient City The Ancient City, p. 17.

35.Henry Maine, Early Law and Custom: Chiefly Selected From Lectures Delivered at Oxford Early Law and Custom: Chiefly Selected From Lectures Delivered at Oxford (Delhi: B. R. Pub. Corp., 1985), p. 56. (Delhi: B. R. Pub. Corp., 1985), p. 56.

36.Kw.a.n.g-chih Chang et al., The Formation of Chinese Civilization: An Archaeological Perspective The Formation of Chinese Civilization: An Archaeological Perspective (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005), p. 165. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005), p. 165.

37.Fustel de Coulanges, The Ancient City The Ancient City, p. 29.

38.Maine, Early Law and Custom Early Law and Custom, pp. 5354.