When All Hell Breaks Loose Part 8

Less than 1 percent of the water treated by public water systems is used for drinking and cooking.

The average person spends less than 1 percent of their total personal expenditure of money for water, wastewater, and water disposal services.

Water expands by nearly one-tenth of its volume when it freezes.

Frozen water is 9 percent lighter than unfrozen water, which is why ice floats.

Drinking adequate amounts of water can decrease the risk of certain types of cancers, including colon cancer, bladder cancer, and breast cancer.

Drinking adequate water can significantly reduce joint and back pain.

Adequate hydration can prevent and alleviate headaches.

Seventy-five percent of a chicken is water.

Ninety-five percent of a tomato is water.

Seventy percent of an elephant is water.

Whatever containers you choose to store your water in, make sure they have tight-fitting lids to keep out debris and critters. Ma.s.sive plastic water tanks, for example, have a few openings that are completely sealable and a manhole-type cover that has a one-way vent, thereby allowing the tank to "breathe" and compensate for air pressure changes. If your containers, both large and small, are not sealable, you will have all sorts of thirsty critters try to horn in on your supply, especially if you live in an arid environment.

I collect rain, and one of my catchment basins is a plastic fifty-five-gallon drum that's open to the air. Along with rain, it commonly collects rat p.o.o.p, bird droppings, and other weirdness, but I don't care as it's reserved for watering specific vegetation. Some of the more heinous things it collects, especially during the hotter months, are swarms of bees looking for a drink. While we get along fine so far, they could be a problem around small children.

Warning! It is not uncommon for bees to fly into open drinking containers of water. If your container is opaque, you will not see the bee when you take a drink. The bee could sting you in your mouth or throat and possibly cause a potentially fatal allergic reaction called anaphylactic shock. If your airway becomes occluded due to swelling caused by the sting, and you don't have immediate access to medical intervention, you will die. This scenario is especially common with opened soft drinks, as bees love sugary water. Deaths due to bee, wasp, and yellow jacket stings kill hundreds of people each year in the United States alone, so pay attention and consider using only transparent containers for drinking.

How Much Water Should I Store?

How much water you store depends on the variables already discussed and your opinion. At the bare minimum, store at least one gallon per person per day. If you live in an arid climate store as much water as you can, at least three gallons per person per day. The primary motive for storing and using this water is your family's hydration (thermoregulation), with cooking and sanitation close behind. Don't forget that pets will also require water. Rural and suburban families that own livestock, horses, or other large animals should plan accordingly for their needs. Most animal owners will know how much their animals drink during hot and cool weather-if not, pay attention the next time you water them.

Keep internally hydrated, but otherwise use water sparingly, and strictly ration your water with regard to sponge baths and the like. While most conventional emergency preparation information advises you to be independent and prepared for three days or seventy-two hours, be independent with water for at least one week, two weeks if possible, and three or four if you can manage the s.p.a.ce and expense. Having "just enough" of any life-giving, precious resource leaves zero room for the variables that will happen after a disaster that will impact your stored supply. Never put all of your eggs in one basket and have, at minimum, two places in which you store your family's emergency water. These locations should be out of the sun and cool, if possible-away from toxic chemicals, gas containers, and other garage or closet household items that could permeate through some water containers and affect the quality of the water. Water should also be stored at your place of work and in each vehicle.

Water is fairly heavy, 8.3 pounds per gallon, and is not compressible, so the s.p.a.ce that it takes up is the s.p.a.ce that it takes up. Since water is so heavy, containing large amounts requires very well-made containers. There are many different containers available and all of them have their pros and cons. Before storing water in smaller preused containers, wash them first with dish detergent. After rinsing, disinfect the inside of the container with one teaspoon of household chlorine bleach per quart of water. Swish the mixture around and let it sit for a few minutes, rinse well, and you're ready to use it for water storage. Look at the following list of the most common water storage containers, and decide which containers or combinations of containers work for you.

Common Types of Water Storage Containers Plastic There are many advantages to using plastic containers. They are extremely common and they come in a large variety of sizes and shapes, from one-quart, backpacking-style water containers to ma.s.sive tanks capable of holding thousands of gallons. They are durable, corrosion resistant, repairable, lightweight when empty, and relatively cheap. Opaque models will inhibit algae growth and come in nonattention-grabbing colors such as forest green and black.

Some disadvantages are that plastic will eventually deteriorate from ultraviolet rays from the sun, may burn/melt with sufficient heat, and will easily absorb and retain odors. Naysayers claim that all plastics eventually leach harmful chemicals into stored water.

Small Plastic Containers There are many small plastic containers to choose from and all give you the option of easily transporting water. Due to their smaller size, usually under a gallon, they double as a convenient drinking container suitable for young children and older people alike. For long-term storage, look for containers that are made specifically for potable water or other liquids. This doesn't mean you should use a plastic container that housed paint thinner in its last life for even short-term use, so please, use common sense.

Liter Pop Bottles These containers are tougher than h.e.l.l, commonly available, easy to drink from for small children and the elderly, and store easily. I've had clients use them on rough, cross-country survival courses, and I'll admit, they can take some abuse. Almost all lack any useful opacity so they will breed algae if exposed to light for any length of time. This same trait makes them wonderful containers to use with the ultraviolet radiation "SODIS" water treatment method explained later in this chapter.

"Camping Style," One-Quart/Liter-Capacity Water Bottles Your local camping and backpacking store will have a varied array of quality, one-quart/liter-capacity water bottles that can take extreme abuse. A common make is Nalgene. I wrap each Nalgene with two rows of duct tape that support a parachute cord loop with which I use to carry the bottle. The duct tape is supremely multiuse and has served me well for many tasks, from preventing blisters on feet and repairing rain gear to anchoring a splint made from a willow branch for a shattered patella. Six years ago, one of my Lexan plastic Nalgenes was run over by a truck hours before a film shoot with an Ohio news station (it's a long story). Other than a few abrasions, it's fine and I use it to this day. The older-style plastic Nalgenes, usually whitish in color, will degrade over time. I have had this type of plastic bottle shatter like gla.s.s when dropped. The weak link with Nalgene bottles is the plastic cap, as it's made from a softer plastic in order to grip and seal the container. I have had these caps shatter when my bottle was dropped. You can buy caps alone, they're about two dollars, and the wise person will pick up at least an extra cap per bottle.

Zipper-lock Freezer Baggies I love zipper-lock freezer bags. Buy a name brand as there is a difference in quality and make sure to purchase "freezer" bags as they're thicker than standard zipper locks. Quality quart- and gallon-size freezer bags will hold their quant.i.ty in water, sealed in a standing position, without bursting open. As the quart-sized bag holds a quart and the gallon-sized bag holds a gallon of water, zipper-locks work well when using halogens such as iodine or chlorine to disinfect water. These bags have a very wide, flat mouth and can skim water from ground areas such as shallow puddles that other containers can't. They can also be scrunched up and reopened inside water-bearing areas to collect liquid that a quart bottle won't fit into. They are the everyday, urban version of the ultimate collapsible water container and have zillions of uses. Emergency zipper-lock water containers can be beefed up with duct tape on the outside to improve their durability against abrasions and punctures. Freezer bags also show promise when used as a container to disinfect water by ultraviolet radiation.

Juice Bottles Plastic or gla.s.s juice bottles should be thoroughly washed and dried before use. However, even after multiple was.h.i.+ngs, you may smell and taste a hint of papaya or whatever type of juice the container originally held-the plastic containers will retain the smell and taste the most.

Bleach Bottles Chlorine bleach bottles that housed regular sodium hypochlorite 5.25 or 6.0 percent without added phosphates or scents are durable and well suited for water storage jugs. They are opaque as well, unlike most juice bottles, and thus are more attractive for long-term water storage in which algae might be an issue.

Milk Jugs Although superior to an animal stomach, milk jugs and gallon water containers from the grocery store both suck for storing and transporting water. Although I have used both for temporary purposes, both the container and the lid are too flimsy. Compared to the other types of containers available to you, milk gallons degrade quickly when exposed to the sun, especially here in the Southwest. Use these only when you have no other option.

Collapsible Containers, Both Large and Small Plastic or rubber collapsible water containers provide water containment without the bulk of the container when empty. As mentioned, water is not compressible and requires a certain amount of volume when stored. This, of course, means that empty water containers will still be a s.p.a.ce hog, using up room that might be at a premium for your family, especially in that efficiency apartment. The weak link of many collapsible containers is the thin, folded, or pleated plastic or rubber itself. The movement of the plastic/rubber creates weak areas within the plastic/rubber, which later leads to leaks. Many years ago there were quality containers being made, but from my modern experiments, most of the commercial options are c.r.a.p. For this reason, don't have the bulk of your water storage containers be the collapsible variety.

"Camping Style," Five- to Seven-Gallon Jerry Cans On my outdoor courses, I use plastic jerry cans a bunch. Most come with a cap and a funnel-like adapter that allow for easier pouring. Other caps convert into a spigot that allows you to open and close it as needed without formally capping the entire container. Some are cheaply made and others are not. Get the thickest plastic you can find and expect sooner or later for the caps and spouts to break. These are usually sold separately, like the caps to the Nalgenes, so pick up extras.

These containers are going to be heavy when full, from forty to fifty-six pounds, so limit their use to storing or transporting water for short distances. While all models have a built-in carrying handle, some designers had a clue and built in two handles, one at the top and the other toward the bottom. This allows for easier pouring and for two people to tackle the job of lugging the thing around. On some dry-camp field courses, I have my students carry full jerry cans to our base camp. The average carry distance for two healthy young males, depending on terrain and air temperature, is about a quarter to a half a mile before they want my head on a stick.

Fifty-five-Gallon Drums (Yes, This Is Considered a Small Container) New or preowned fifty-five-gallon drums or barrels are extremely common on many survival supply Web sites. While all of them sold for storing water should be made from food-grade plastics, double check before ordering. Food wholesalers and restaurants might be another place to score some containers, although no doubt they will need cleaning and may reek of their former contents until the end of time. One of my fifty-five-gallon drums was a former home for olives. It has smelled of olives for more than seven years but I don't care as I don't use its water for human consumption. Even so, the smell is purely cosmetic.

Some have tried the following method to eliminate the infamous "pickle bucket stink" from their containers. First, wash the h.e.l.l out of the inside of the container with dish soap. Next, use a paste solution of baking soda and hot water and scrub it some more and/or fill the container up with hot water and dissolve into the water a cup and a half of baking soda, stir it up good, and let the solution sit for a few days. Empty it out (hopefully on some thirsty plants) and fill it again with water and this time add a cup and a half of chlorine bleach and let it sit for a few days. Chlorine evaporates so seal the bucket as it sits. If your container doesn't have a cover, consider not wasting your time with it as it will be inferior for storing water anyway due to infiltrating debris and critters. Do this process during hot weather as it will slightly expand the plastic and allow greater access to more of the "pores" that hold onto the odor. Empty the container and let it dry with the top off. If this doesn't work, get used to the smell of pickles.

When filled with water, a fifty-five-gallon drum would herniate the Incredible Hulk if he tried to move it, so figure out where you want it before you fill it. Be careful about putting them in older homes with sketchy wooden floors or on second-story floors or higher as they will weigh more than 450 pounds when topped off. Some retailers sell cool little pumps that fit on top of the drums that allow your family to pump out the water. Other people cut into the bottom side of the drum and install a spigot. Others don't mind opening the top and using a pot to simply scoop out water, or they use a garden hose to siphon off the contents. Obviously, due to their great size, fifty-five-gallon drums are meant to store water in a static location. Even so, when mostly empty, they aren't that bad to move around and are relatively convenient and cheap for most homeowners to own a few.

Large Plastic Containers In the Southwest, plastic water storage tanks of all shapes and sizes are a normal part of life. Many people, especially in rural areas, either haul their own or have water delivered to their homes via commercial water trucks. The most common tank size for home use is 3,000 gallons, due to its manageable size (approximately 95 inches by 105 inches), and the fact that water trucks usually hold 1,600 to 2,000 gallons. If you have the s.p.a.ce, and choose to purchase a large-capacity plastic tank, choose one that is opaque (as most are) to inhibit algae growth and choose a low-key color such as black or dark green. Larger tanks come with an opening near the bottom, one near the top, and a manhole-type cover that allows for smaller folks to climb into the tank, if needed, for cleaning or repairs. Additional holes can easily be added wherever you like.

In the many years that I've had my tank, I've never had a problem with algae or anything else. Before I got around to capping off one of the top holes, a bird flew into the tank without my knowledge, became trapped, and died in the water. We drank the nondisinfected water anyway and watched the bird slowly dissolve until only the skull remained. Skittish guests refused to drink and brought their own water for months, thereby saving a great deal of water. I'm not recommending the dead bird trick as a way to be cheap with your water but it does demonstrate and affirm water being the ultimate natural dissolver when given sufficient time. My own mother still refuses to drink the water some seven years later.

Any clear container left filled with water and exposed to direct or indirect sunlight will in time grow algae. This bright green slime coats the inside of the container with surprising rapidity. While I'm no algaeologist, the varieties that I have dealt with over the years have given me zero problems. When a thin layer of it decides to separate itself from the side of my water jug, I simply consider the stuff free food and drink it down. Other people, perhaps not surprisingly, have been vocal with their objections to sharing my jug. Although it's typically the stuff you can't see floating around in water that causes the problems, I understand their protests. If your family freaks out about their greenish-looking bottles, help to prevent algae growth in the first place by making clear bottles opaque with covers or paint. Also, keep them out of direct or indirect sunlight and change the water inside often. If algae takes over your bottle, it will be nearly impossible to get out without mechanical scrubbing, which is difficult to accomplish in many containers with tiny openings. The easiest way to get rid of algae is to add a couple of tablespoons of bleach to the bottle along with a little water. Shake it up a bit, let it sit for a few minutes, then come back and shake it some more until the algae breaks off and/or dissolves in the chlorine solution. Rinse the bottle out and you're back in the good graces of your fussy family. Rotate your stored water supply every six months to a year whether it was used or not.

Some suggest that chlorine be added to large amounts of stored water that sit for a long period of time, but I have never found the need to do so. I'm drinking the same water now that I added to my tank fourteen months ago (without adding any fresh water) and it's fine, sans any means of disinfection. While I cover how to use chlorine to disinfect smaller quant.i.ties of water on Chapter 13, adding chlorine drop by drop to a 3,000 gallon water tank would have the same effect as being forced to listen to one Menudo song. For those who insist on adding chlorine bleach to large amounts of stored water, sans Menudo, the recipe is as follows.

HOW TO DISINFECT 1,000 GALLONS OF WATER WITH CHLORINE BLEACH.

I went straight to the source of water disinfection information for this one and talked with Rick Pinney, water superintendent for the city of Prescott, Arizona. He kindly spent nearly an hour with me on the phone going through complex math formulas that had me close to cutting my wrists. In the end, he took pity on my anemic math skills and just gave me the answer. Thanks, Rick!

The following is used to treat 1,000 gallons of nonpotable water with sodium hypochlorite 5.25 or 6 percent to achieve a concentration of one parts per million. If you're wis.h.i.+ng to disinfect more or less water, do the math.

The following dosage is given in three different measurements that all equate to the same amount. Choose whichever one works best for you.

Use 1/3 cup chlorine bleach per 1,000 gallons of water Or 2 ounces of chlorine bleach per 1,000 gallons of water Or 14 teaspoons of chlorine bleach per 1,000 gallons of water.

Although larger cylindrical plastic tanks are not meant to be buried, I have mine buried in sand a few feet so the pipes running to the house aren't susceptible to damage from freezing temperatures. For purely emergency use, a family can pick the proper tank location (the company who sells you the tank should be able to supply you with how to prepare the ground for the size you purchase), attach a valve to the bottom opening, fill the tank with water, and fill smaller containers as needed without the headache of freezing pipes.

While these tanks are fairly UV resistant, they will take a beating in direct sunlight over the years. That said, I've seen tanks that have baked in the Arizona sun for more than a decade and they look brand new. If an idiot shoots at your tank, or it is somehow damaged short of a gaping hole, plastic tanks can be repaired by the use of a plastic rod of material that is simply melted into or over the leak.

Gla.s.s Containers There are some advantages to using gla.s.s containers. Potentially harmful chemicals cannot leach into the water from gla.s.s. Water doesn't pick up weird tastes from gla.s.s and gla.s.s does not absorb odors. Ultraviolet rays from the sun have no effect on gla.s.s and gla.s.s containers will last almost indefinitely if not damaged.

The disadvantages to gla.s.s containers are pretty obvious. They are breakable (and the resulting mess can cause serious injury) and nonrepairable. They are heavy compared to plastic. It is rare to find any gla.s.s containers over a one- or two-gallon capacity. Algae will grow in them unless they are painted or covered. They are noncombustible, but they may crack or shatter with enough heat. They may crack if exposed to freezing temperatures when filled with water.

Small Gla.s.s Containers Small containers of a gallon or two are about all you'll find, the most common being those that held apple juice. Look over the advantages and disadvantages of the various containers explained and decide whether gla.s.s fits with your water storage plan.

Galvanized Metal Galvanized metal containers have some advantages. They are durable, repairable, noncombustible, and are commonly available (especially in rural areas) in a wide variety of sizes.

The disadvantages are that they are expensive and heavy, even when empty. They will eventually corrode and the reflective metal is highly visible unless it's painted. The zinc coating may also present a health problem. Because of the zinc, aquaculture folks won't use galvanized containers to raise their fish; they use plastic.

Small Metal Containers Before plastic, metal buckets, milk jugs, and coolers were common. I have adapted old metal milk jugs for back-country water containers and have always had the problem of eventual corrosion and rust-and drinking flakes of rust is a drag. Although you can sand and paint the inside with some sort of paint that's nontoxic, it's a lot of work, and work you're destined to repeat if you use the container for long-term water storage. The most practical household application for storing water in metal containers is to fill extra cooking pots and pans.

Large Metal Containers Many ranches and farms in the West use ma.s.sive galvanized metal tanks that hold the results of the neighboring windmill. These can be purchased in a variety of sizes for home use as well. Check the pros and cons of plastic and metal and decide what's best for you.

Wonderful Water Storage Containers You May Already Have at Home Important Note: Know where the water intake valve to your home is located. If there are reports of broken water or sewer lines in your area, or if you're recommended to do so by the authorities, you will need to shut off this valve to prevent contaminated water from entering your home. For those living in apartments or other places where accessing a water intake valve is slim, recognize that the water coming into your home after a disaster may be heavily contaminated with sewage, dangerous chemicals, or other substances that could make you ill or kill you.

Bathtubs While many newer homes and apartments have opted out the bathtub in favor of a shower, the vast majority of households have this ready and willing container ready to fill. In an emergency, your hydration will far outweigh how you look and smell so buck up and fill it to the rim while you can. Watch the kids for accidental drowning and keep the water as clean as possible. It's doubtful that any tub is clean enough to drink from but that's not the point. You can always disinfect the water later for drinking.

Swimming Pools, Jacuzzis, and Hot Tubs All of the above contain a bonanza of emergency water. No matter how nasty the water, waterborne pathogens can be killed with the methods explained in this book so be thankful you have something to disinfect. Added chlorine eventually evaporates over time and loses its punch so don't worry about superchlorinated water. If you've added chemicals to your pool or spa, check with the manufacturer to see if you're out of luck to use the water as drinking water, even with disinfection methods. If it isn't suitable for drinking or cooking, you can always use it for keeping clean and other hygiene needs.

The Back of the Toilet The back of your toilet, NOT the bowl, will have water that should be potable after disinfection, just to be on the safe side. Do not use water that has been chemically treated or that appears "blue."

Sinks As the average U.S. household turns on its faucets an average of seventy times each day, leave at least one sink free for was.h.i.+ng, cooking, and the like. I have been in some homes that have ma.s.sive kitchen sinks that could bathe an eight-year-old. If this is you, hubba-hubba, store what water you can! To use the existing water trapped in your pipes, find the highest faucet in the home and turn it on (and leave it on for this exercise) to let air into the pipes. Water should then freely drain from the lowest faucet in the house.

Water Beds Water that has been sitting in your bed since the turn of the century may have become a toxic c.o.c.ktail. Check with the manufacturer to see what kind of plastic or rubber your bed is made from, and if it imparts noxious chemicals into the water over time. Fungicides added to the water may also make it unsafe to use as drinking water. If not suitable for drinking, even after disinfection, it's always a welcome commodity for hygiene and sanitary needs.

Water Heaters Many homes are equipped with old-style water heaters that store forty gallons or more. These can be accessed and drained if need be for potable water. Be sure the electricity or gas is off and open the drain valve at the bottom of the tank. Turn off the water intake valve at the tank and turn on a hot water faucet in the house, lower than the water heater itself if possible. When the crisis is over, remember to refill the tank with water before electricity or gas is hooked back up to the heater. The water found in hot water heaters such as those designed for heating entire homes should not be used for drinking water.

If you have the money and the opportunity, consider purchasing an "on-demand" water heater. This little gem, popular in Europe for years, heats only the water you're using at the time. If you're a wasteful slob, this means you could take an everlasting hot shower. If you're a responsible human being, you'll save immense amounts of energy, i.e., money, over time as the water heater is not constantly turning on and off to keep those forty gallons of water hot for your next use.

Ice Cubes and Liquids in Canned Goods Although miniscule, the water from melted ice cubes is potable and should be utilized. The average household also has many types of canned goods that contain large amounts of liquid such as canned fruit, tomato juice, and fruit juices. None of these, however, should be thought of as replacing water to combat dehydration. Although many canned vegetables contain water, they are typically laced with sodium and should not be thought of as drinking water. It should be saved along with the vegetable to be used to cook the contents of the can or consumed directly from the can with the vegetable itself.

Radiators in Vehicles DO NOT drink water from radiators or use it topically on the skin or clothing to increase evaporative cooling. The chemicals in antifreeze can be lethal inside the body and irritating outside the body.

Collect, Collect, Collect Your Water!

There are approximately one million miles worth of city and county water pipelines and aqueducts in the United States and Canada-enough to circle the earth forty times. If your only access to water is through these pipelines, or a private well in which the pump runs off grid power, you won't have any idea if and when your spigot will run dry, so start collecting water the instant that you are able to do so in a disaster situation. Although it will seem like a ha.s.sle to have containers all over the house filled with liquid, you will eventually use them up. Use the containers first which are the biggest inconvenience to have filled with water. If you live in an arid region or are dependent upon "grid water," I can't possibly overemphasize the importance of gathering and storing every possible drop of water that you can. I don't care how much food, ammunition, firewood, and flashlight batteries you have stored, if you fail to have an adequate supply of drinking water, you and your loved ones will die.

Making Your Water Safe to Drink: The Art of Water Disinfection "AFTER A MAJOR CATASTROPHE, POPULATIONS ARE PARTICULARLY VULNERABLE TO WATERBORNE DISEASES, AND OUR ABILITY TO PRODUCE LARGE QUANt.i.tIES OF SAFE WATER AND PROVIDE ADEQUATE SANITATION QUICKLY HAS BEEN CRUCIAL IN ENSURING THAT THESE COMMUNITIES WERE NOT SUBJECTED TO A SECOND DISASTER.".

-MARKKU NISKALA, SECRETARY-GENERAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL FEDERATION OF

RED CROSS AND RED CRESCENT SOCIETIES IN RESPONSE TO THE DECEMBER 2006 TSUNAMI.

For centuries various means have been used to make water safe to drink. A couple of recorded methods date back to 2000 BC. One states that water must be exposed to sunlight and then filtered with charcoal. Another, that nonpotable water must be boiled and then have a piece of copper dipped within the water, seven times no less, before finally being filtered. The actual mechanisms of disinfection, however, through the knowledge and destruction of otherwise unseen dangerous pathogens have only been around for a hundred years or so.

There are more than 58,900 public water supply systems in the United States. Approximately 85 percent of U.S. residents receive their water from public water facilities while the remaining 15 percent supply their own water from private wells or other sources. It wasn't until 1974, when the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) was enacted, that public drinking water supplies were protected on a federal (national) level in the United States. Today, potable water meets over a hundred different standards for drinking water quality. That said, others argue that there are more than 2,100 known drinking water contaminants that may be present in tap water, including several known poisons.

It doesn't matter how plentiful water is if it's unsafe to drink. Disasters of all types are notorious for fouling whatever drinkable water a community had and making it a challenge for emergency response personnel to disinfect or deliver potable water to the population. I remember vividly the news footage of hundreds of people begging for water from their rooftops during the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina while New Orleans stood submerged in, well, water. Waterborne, diarrheal illnesses took their toll as norovirus, Salmonella, and toxigenic and nontoxigenic V. cholerae were confirmed among Katrina evacuees.

Even in good times, the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) receive notification of more than 4,000 cases per year of illness due to drinking water contamination. Water can be contaminated by organic and inorganic substances from land erosion; the disintegration of minerals, rotting vegetation, and rotting animal and human bodies; earth- and waterborne biological pathogens; industrial chemical pollutants; and microorganisms from animal and human waste.

There are many ways to disinfect nonpotable water, but I'll limit my how-to writings to the most common household methods. The term "water disinfection" means killing or removing the pathogens or bugs that make us ill. While its usage is technically a.s.sociated with chemical halogens like iodine and chlorine, it can be applied to filtration and heat as well. The term "water purification," as preached in the majority of survival books and elsewhere, involves the removal of organic and inorganic chemicals and particulate matter and deals with how water looks, tastes, and smells. It has nothing to do with the art of eliminating harmful microorganisms that will have you barfing up a lung and filling your pants with excrement. Severe diarrhea can significantly increase your body's fluid loss, up to twenty-five quarts (liters) in a twenty-four-hour period! Death from dehydration caused by diarrhea is one of the biggest killers of people worldwide, especially infants and small children. Estimates are that, worldwide, 28,000 to 68,000 people die each day from diseases caused by contaminated water and unhealthy conditions.

There are four families of critters that cause us gastrointestinal grief: protozoa, parasites, bacteria, and viruses. Some of these creatures mean business and can make you very dead if not dealt with sooner or later. For our purposes, all of these creatures, especially the viral variety, are measured in microns. They are thus extremely small and can't be seen with the naked eye. It's usually what you can't see in nonpotable water that hurts you, not the stuff that may be visibly swimming around doing the backstroke. This is an important realization, as your family may scream b.l.o.o.d.y murder if they have to drink safe water with "stuff" swimming in it, and yet blissfully chug down clean-looking water that's laced with harmful waterborne pathogens. In regard to the halogens described below, the various harmful microorganisms have different rates of resistance to being killed. The easiest for halogens to kill are bacterias; the most difficult, parasitic ova and larva. As both are "invisible," it really doesn't matter, other than reminding you to use caution when treating your water.

Tincture of Iodine 2% Iodine is a chemical halogen available in many forms including 57 percent solution, 10 percent solution, tablets, crystals and 2 percent tincture. Although I prefer the 2 percent tincture, regardless of what form you choose it must remain in contact with the water for a certain period of time in order for it to kill the pathogens. The amount of contact time required varies in regard to the water's temperature and pH, how strong the iodine solution was made, the type of microorganisms that are present, and the quant.i.ty of nitrogen compounds and particulate matter found within the water. Of the four families of waterborne pathogens, iodine kills them all with the exception of the protozoa Cryptosporidium parvum, which infects many herd animals including cows, goats, sheep, deer, and elk.

HOW TO DISINFECT ONE QUART OF NONPOTABLE WATER WITH TINCTURE OF IODINE 2%.

In most situations, I use five drops of tincture of iodine 2 percent per one U.S. quart of water (there are four quarts to a gallon), although as many as ten drops per quart may be used. (Note: A liter of water is just a bit more than a quart but I've never found the need to add more iodine or any other halogen to compensate for this.) For most water sources, let the five drops sit for thirty minutes before drinking. The medical books say twenty minutes, but I like to add in the extra protection of more time. This next point is critical, so pay attention. If the water you are about to disinfect is NOT clear and temperate, you will need to add more iodine per quart and/or let the iodine sit longer before the water is safe to drink. Turbidity or water's "cloudiness" is caused by suspended particulate matter such as clay, silt, plankton, and other microscopic organisms and is often the reason some water tastes and smells ghastly. Funky-looking surface water is a common occurrence in many locales and contains ten times the organic carbon content of aquifer groundwater. Waterborne pathogens can absorb into or already be imbedded within the floating matter to such an extent that organisms in the center of the chunks are somewhat protected from disinfection methods. Iodine is a halogen and will readily bond to the nitrogen compounds, organic and inorganic, present within the water's turbidity. These nitrogen compounds, commonly referred to as pond sc.u.m, tamper with the halogen's ability to kill pathogens and require either more sit time for the water to disinfect or adding greater amounts of halogen, or both.

Filtering out water turbidity decreases the number of microorganisms present in the first place, while decreasing the amount of iodine needed to disinfect the water. Doing so also makes your water look and smell a lot better. Water clarity can be improved by simply letting it sit or by straining it through a piece of clothing, bandana, paper towel, coffee filter, or any tightly woven material.

Iodine and halogens, in general, are very temperature sensitive, and take longer to do their work when water is cold. Thus, the colder the water the more contact time is required in order to successfully eliminate bad bugs. For extremely cold water let the five drops sit for two to three hours or longer if possible. To cut down on the sit time you can also add more iodine, up to ten drops per quart, although this will make the water taste strongly of iodine, and it's not exactly a kid-tested and mother-approved flavor. Having several water containers will let you stagger your disinfection times by treating some while drinking others. This allows the disinfecting water to sit for long periods of time by using less iodine, thus conserving the precious substance and making your disinfected water taste a whole lot better.

The pH of the water being disinfected is also a factor. Halogens form several compounds, each with different disinfection rates, by oxidizing in water. How well each compound works is determined by pH. In general, the optimal pH for halogen disinfection is 6.5 to 7.5. The more alkaline the water, the greater the dose of iodine is required. If water is extremely alkaline or acidic, it's usually too nasty to drink anyway, so don't be overly concerned with the water's pH.

If the water you're disinfecting is highly suspicious and difficult to filter, add more iodine rather than just prolonging the contact time. When dealing with extremely questionable water sources, both the color and the taste of iodine-treated water can be used as rough indicators for the proper disinfection amount. Under these circ.u.mstances, if the iodine taste created makes the kids complain even louder and the contents of your container appear yellow to light brown, you've successfully achieved 0.6 parts per million or greater, which is what you want.

In summary, strain or filter the water to be disinfected if necessary through a piece of cloth to get rid of organic and inorganic matter. For heavier particulate matter, you can also let the water stand for several hours in a larger container such as a five-gallon bucket. Next, add no more than ten drops of iodine per U.S. quart or liter (I use five drops per quart or liter). Give the container a little shake. If the water temperature is fairly temperate, let the solution disinfect for thirty minutes. If the water is cold, increase the iodine's disinfection time. Before drinking, partially unscrew the lid of the container it is in and turn the container upside down, thereby allowing treated water to dribble down the threads. It only takes a drop of water containing pathogens to get ill. This action also flushes out any untreated water that may have been hiding in the threads of the container. By the way, if you flavor water to make it more palatable and the flavoring contains vitamin C (as...o...b..c acid), it will neutralize the iodine (and its nasty taste!) before it does its killing. Wait thirty minutes or longer after disinfecting before adding the flavoring! Zinc brushes are also available to rid the water of its iodine taste and are available at most camping stores.

Liquid tincture of iodine 2 percent has a much longer shelf life, up to several years longer, than the compressed iodine tablets on the market. Iodine tablets, available at most camping stores, are relatively expensive and very susceptible to heat, light, and moisture degradation. If you choose to use the pill form, or that's all you have, the directions for their use should be on the bottle, usually two tablets per quart of water. Tincture of iodine 2 percent comes in its own unbreakable, one-ounce plastic bottle with a built-in cohesion dropper inside the cap, and retails for under two bucks. The bottle is typically tinted or opaque, giving the iodine greater protection from light sources. Circle the bottle with brightly colored tape for better visibility and write "Iodine" in permanent marker on its surface to minimize misunderstandings. The tincture is widely available and can be purchased at most discount pharmacies. If the pharmacy doesn't have any in stock, they should be willing to order some. Make sure to purchase the reddish-colored iodine as the drops from the "denatured" or clear iodine are hard to see hit the water. Another advantage of iodine 2 percent is its use as a topical wound disinfectant. When I was a kid, my skin was stained with iodine a good part of the time due to an a.s.sortment of scratches, cuts, abrasions, and punctures. In short, this compact, lightweight, cheap, easily available, globally effective, multiuse, extended shelf life, handy-to-use product is worth its weight in intestinal parasites for the urban and suburban survivor and outdoor enthusiast alike.

WARNING! If you look closely at the bottle of tincture of iodine 2 percent you will see a skull and crossbones with the word "poison" written underneath. In the early 1900s, iodine was used to disinfect entire town water supplies. The U.S. Navy has performed multi-month studies on unknowing s.h.i.+pbound sailors in which extreme amounts of iodine were added to the s.h.i.+ps' drinking water. So far, n.o.body has reported a problem or sired a kid with three heads. Prison systems as well have performed their patriotic duty by secretly experimenting on hundreds of inmates with no problems being reported. Regardless, iodine is recommended for short-term use only, no longer than thirty days. The halogen iodine does have the following contraindications so know your family's medical history before using it. Do NOT use iodine water disinfection methods of any type if you are pregnant or have a known allergy to iodine or a thyroid problem.

AND YOU THINK YOU GOT PROBLEMS?.

More than 1.1 billion of the world's people don't have regular access to clean water.

One billion people must walk three hours or more to obtain drinking water.

In Mexico, 15 percent of the population must haul or carry water.

Nearly 2 percent of U.S. homes have no running water.

More than 2 billion people on earth do not have a safe supply of water.

Today, at least 400 million people live in regions with severe water shortages.