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[Footnote 331: See authorities quoted by Maspro, _T'oung Pao_, 1910, p. 329.]
[Footnote 332: Finot in _B.E.F.E.O._ 1904, pp. 918 and 922.]
[Footnote 333: _Corpus_, II. _Stle de Po Nagar_, pp. 252 ff. and _Stle de Yang Tikuh_, p. 208, etc.]
[Footnote 334: The statements that they came from Java and were cannibals occur in different inscriptions and may conceivably refer to two bodies of invaders. But the dates are very near. Probably Java is not the island now so called. See the chapter on Camboja, sec. 2. The undoubted references in the inscriptions of Champa to the island of Java call it Yavadvpa.]
[Footnote 335: _Veth. Java_, I. p. 233.]
[Footnote 336: See "La Chronique Royale," _B.E.F.E.O._ 1905, p. 377.]
[Footnote 337: _Corpus_, II. p. 259. Jinendra may be a name either of the Buddha or of a grammarian. The mention of the Ksik vr?itti is important as showing that this work must be anterior to the ninth century. The Uttara Kalpa is quoted in the Tantras (see Bergaigne's note), but nothing is known of it.]
[Footnote 338: _B.E.F.E.O._ 1904, p. 973.]
[Footnote 339: From Mi-son, date 1157 A.D. See _B.E.F.E.O._ 1904, pp.
961 and 963.]
[Footnote 340: = Chinese Mei shan, beautiful mountain. For an account of the temples and their history see the articles by Parmentier and Finot, _B.E.F.E.O._ 1904, pp. 805-977.]
[Footnote 341: But contemporary inscriptions have been discovered.
_B.E.F.E.O._ 1902, pp. 185 ff.]
[Footnote 342: Doubtless because the capital was transferred to the south where the shrine of Po-nagar had rival claims.]
[Footnote 343: See especially the article by Parmentier, _B.E.F.E.O._ 1902, pp. 17-54.]
[Footnote 344: XXVI _Corpus_, II. pp. 244, 256; date 918 A.D.]
[Footnote 345: Sivamukham: probably a mukhalinga.]
[Footnote 346: Also Ypunagara even in Sanskrit inscriptions.]
[Footnote 347: Parmentier, _l.c._ p. 49.]
[Footnote 348: This is only a very rough description of a rather complicated structure. For details see Parmentier, _Monuments C?ams_, planche XCVIII.]
[Footnote 349: Inscrip. at Mi-son of 658 A.D. See _B.E.F.E.O._ 1904, p. 921.]
[Footnote 350: Other examples are Indrabhadresvara, _Corpus_, II.
p. 208. Harivarmesvara, _B.E.F.E.O._ 1904, p. 961.]
[Footnote 351: _E.g. B.E.F.E.O._ pp. 918 ff. Dates 658 A.D. onwards.]
[Footnote 352: Yogaddhyna, Sivrdha, Sivabhakti. See _B.E.F.E.O._ 1904, pp. 933-950. Harivarman III abdicated in 1080 and gave himself up to contemplation and devotion to Siva.]
[Footnote 353: See _B.E.F.E.O._ 1904, pp. 912 ff. and esp. p. 970. I have seen a kosha which is still in use in the neighbourhood of Badami. It is kept in a village called Nandikesvara, but on certain festivals it is put on a linga at the temple of Mahakut. It is about 2 feet high and 10 inches broad; a silver case with a rounded and ornamented top. On one side is a single face in bold embossed work and bearing fine moustaches exactly as in the mukhalingas of Champa. In the tank of the temple of Mahakut is a half submerged shrine, from which rises a stone linga on which are carved four faces bearing moustaches. There is said to be a gold kosha set with jewels at Sringeri. See _J. Mythic. Society_ (Bangalore), vol. VIII. p. 27.
According to Gopinatha Rao, _Indian Iconography_, vol. II. p. 63, the oldest known lingas have figures carved on them.]
[Footnote 354: _Corpus_, II. pp. 229, 230.]
[Footnote 355: _B.E.F.E.O._ 1904, pp. 959, 960.]
[Footnote 356: See for an account of same _B.E.F.E.O._ 1901, p. 18.]
[Footnote 357: _Corpus_, II. p. 282.]
[Footnote 358: In several pa.s.sages Hsan Chuang notes that there were Psupatas or other Sivaites in the same towns of India where Sammitiyas were found. See Watters, _Yan Chw.a.n.g_, I. 331, 333; II.
47, 242, 256, 258, 259.]
[Footnote 359: Maspro, _T'oung Pao_, 1910, p. 514.]
[Footnote 360: At Yang Kur. See _Corpus_, II. pp. 237-241.]
[Footnote 361: For his views see his inscriptions in _B.E.F.E.O._ 1904, pp. 85 ff. But kings who are not known to have been Buddhists also speak of Dharma. _B.E.F.E.O._ 1904, pp. 922, 945.]
[Footnote 362: Apparently special forms of deities such as Srsnabhadresvara or Lakshmnda Lokesvara were regarded as to some extent separate existences. Thus the former is called a portion of Siva, _B.E.F.E.O._ 1904, p. 973.]
[Footnote 363: Presumably in the form of vessels.]
[Footnote 364: _B.E.F.E.O._ 1904, pp. 973-975.]
[Footnote 365: _B.E.F.E.O._ 1904, p. 975.]
[Footnote 366: _Ib._ 1901, p. 23, and Parmentier, _Inventaire des Monuments Chams_, p. 542.]
[Footnote 367: Gabriel de San Antonio, _Breve y verdadera relation de los successes de Reyno de Camboxa_, 1604.]
[Footnote 368: See for the modern Chams the article "Chams" in _E.R.E.
and Ethics_, and Durand, "Les Chams Bani," _B.E.F.E.O._ 1903, and "Notes sur les Chams," _ib._ 1905-7.]
CHAPTER XL
JAVA AND THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO
1
In most of the countries which we have been considering, the native civilization of the present day is still Indian in origin, although in the former territories of Champa this Indian phase has been superseded by Chinese culture with a little Mohammedanism. But in another area we find three successive stages of culture, indigenous, Indian and Mohammedan. This area includes the Malay Peninsula with a large part of the Malay Archipelago, and the earliest stratum with which we need concern ourselves is Malay. The people who bear this name are remarkable for their extraordinary powers of migration by sea, as shown by the fact that languages connected with Malay are spoken in Formosa and New Zealand, in Easter Island and Madagascar, but their originality both in thought and in the arts of life is small. The three stages are seen most clearly in Java where the population was receptive and the interior accessible. Sumatra and Borneo also pa.s.sed through them in a fas.h.i.+on but the indigenous element is still predominant and no foreign influence has been able to affect either island as a whole. Islam gained no footing in Bali which remains curiously Hindu but it reached Celebes and the southern Philippines, in both of which Indian influence was slight[369]. The destiny of south-eastern Asia with its islands depends on the fact that the tide of trade and conquest whether Hindu, Moslim or European, flowed from India or Ceylon to the Malay Peninsula and Java and thence northwards towards China with a reflux westwards in Champa and Camboja. Burma and Siam lay outside this track. They received their culture from India mainly by land and were untouched by Mohammedanism. But the Mohammedan current which affected the Malays was old and continuous. It started from Arabia in the early days of the Hijra and had nothing to do with the Moslim invasions which entered India by land.
2
Indian civilization appears to have existed in Java from at least the fifth century of our era[370]. Much light has been thrown on its history of late by the examination of inscriptions and of fairly ancient literature but the record still remains fragmentary. There are considerable gaps: the seat of power s.h.i.+fted from one district to another and at most epochs the whole island was not subject to one ruler, so that the t.i.tle king of Java merely indicates a prince pre-eminent among others doubtfully subordinate to him.
