A Biographical Dictionary of Freethinkers of All Ages and Nations Part 7

Child (Lydia Maria) nee Francis, American auth.o.r.ess, b. Medford, Ma.s.s., 11 Feb. 1802. She early commenced writing, publis.h.i.+ng Hobomok, a Tale of Early Times, in '21. From '25 she kept a private school in Watertown until '28, when she married David Lee Child, a Boston lawyer. She, with him, edited the Anti-Slavery Standard, '41, etc., and by her numerous writings did much to form the opinion which ultimately prevailed. She was, however, long subjected to public odium, her heterodoxy being well known. Her princ.i.p.al work is The Progress of Religious Ideas, 3 vols.; '55. Died Wayland, Ma.s.s., 20 Oct. 1880. She was highly eulogised by Wendell Phillips.

Chilton (William), of Bristol, was born in 1815. In early life he was a bricklayer, but in '41 he was concerned with Charles Southwell in starting the Oracle of Reason, which he set up in type, and of which he became one of the editors. He contributed some thoughtful articles on the Theory of Development to the Library of Reason, and wrote in the Movement and the Reasoner. Died at Bristol, 28 May, 1855.

Chubb (Thomas), English Deist, b. East Harnham, near Salisbury, 29 Sept. 1679, was one of the first to show Rationalism among the common people. Beginning by contending for the Supremacy of the Father, he gradually relinquished supernatural religion, and considered that Jesus Christ was of the religion of Thomas Chubb. Died 8 Feb. 1747, leaving behind two vols. which he calls A Farewell to his Readers, from which it appears that he rejected both revelation and special providence.

Church (Henry Tyrell), lecturer and writer, edited Tallis's Shakespeare, wrote Woman and her Failings, 1858, and contributed to the Investigator when edited by Mr. Bradlaugh. Died 19 July, 1859.

Clapiers (Luc de). See Vauvenargues.

Claretie (Jules Armand a.r.s.ene), French writer, b. Limoges, 3 Dec. 1840. A prolific writer, of whose works we only cite Free Speech, '68; his biographies of contemporary celebrities; and his work Camille Desmoulins, '75.

Clarke (John), brought up in the Methodist connection, changed his opinion by studying the Bible, and became one of Carlile's shopmen. He was tried 10 June, 1824, for selling a blasphemous libel in number 17, vol. ix., of The Republican, and after a spirited defence, in which he read many of the worst pa.s.sages in the Bible, was sentenced to three years' imprisonment, and to find securities for good behavior during life. He wrote while in prison, A Critical Review of the Life, Character, and Miracles of Jesus, a work showing with some bitterness much bold criticism and Biblical knowledge. It first appeared in the Newgate Magazine and was afterwards published in book form, 1825 and '39.

Clarke (Marcus), Australian writer, b. Kensington, 1847. Went to Victoria, '63; joined the staff of Melbourne Argus. In '76 was made a.s.sistant librarian of the Public Library. He has compiled a history of Australia, and written The Peripatetic Philosopher (a series of clever sketches), His Natural Life (a powerful novel), and some poems. An able Freethought paper, "Civilisation without Delusion," in the Victoria Review, Nov. '79, was replied to by Bishop Moorhouse. The reply, with Clarke's answer, which was suppressed, was published in '80. Died 1884.

Claude-Constant, author of a Freethinkers' Catechism published at Paris in 1875.

Clavel (Adolphe), French Positivist and physician, b. Gren.o.ble, 1815. He has written on the Principles of 1789, on those of the nineteenth century, on Positive Morality, and some educational works.

Clavel (F. T. B.), French author of a Picturesque History of Freemasonry, and also a Picturesque History of Religions, 1844, in which Christianity takes a subordinate place.

Clayton (Robert), successively Bishop of Killala, Cork, and Clogher, b. Dublin, 1695. By his benevolence attracted the friends.h.i.+p of Samuel Clarke, and adopted Arianism, which he maintained in several publications. In 1756 he proposed, in the Irish House of Lords, the omission of the Nicene and Athanasian Creeds from the Liturgy, and stated that he then felt more relieved in his mind than for twenty years before. A legal prosecution was inst.i.tuted, but he died, it is said, from nervous agitation (26 Feb. 1758) before the matter was decided.

Cleave (John), bookseller, and one of the pioneers of a cheap political press. Started the London Satirist, and Cleave's Penny Gazette of Variety, Oct. 14, 1837, to Jan. 20, '44. He published many Chartist and Socialistic works, and an abridgment of Howitt's History of Priestcraft. In May, '40, he was sentenced to four months'

imprisonment for selling Haslam's Letters to the Clergy.

Clemenceau (Georges Benjamin Eugene), French politician, b. Moulleron-en-Pareds, 28 Sept. 1841. Educated at Nantes and Paris, he took his doctor's degree in '65. His activity as Republican ensured him a taste of gaol. He visited the United States and acted as correspondent on the Temps. He returned at the time of the war and was elected deputy to the a.s.sembly. In Jan. 1880 he founded La Justice, having as collaborateurs M. C. Pelletan, Prof. Acollas and Dr. C. Letourneau. As one of the chiefs of the Radical party he was largely instrumental in getting M. Carnot elected President.

Clemetshaw (C.), French writer, using the name Cilwa. B. 14 Sept. 1864 of English parents; has contributed to many journals, was delegate to the International Congress, London, of '87, and is editor of Le Danton.

Clemens (Samuel Langhorne), American humorist, better known as "Mark Twain," b. Florida, Missouri, 30 Nov. 1835. In '55 he served as Mississippi pilot, and takes his pen name from the phrase used in sounding. In Innocents Abroad, or the New Pilgrim's Progress, '69, by which he made his name, there is much jesting with "sacred"

subjects. Mr. Clemens is an Agnostic.

Clifford (Martin), English Rationalist. Was Master of the Charterhouse, 1671, and published anonymously a treatise of Human Reason, London, '74, which was reprinted in the following year with the author's name. A short while after its publication Laney, Bishop of Ely, was dining in Charterhouse and remarked, not knowing the author, "'twas no matter if all the copies were burnt and the author with them, because it made every man's private fancy judge of religion." Clifford died 10 Dec. 1677. In the Nouvelle Biographie Generale Clifford is amusingly described as an "English theologian of the order des Chartreux," who, it is added, was "prior of his order."

Clifford (William Kingdon), mathematician, philosopher, and moralist, of rare originality and boldness, b. Exeter 4 May, 1845. At the age of fifteen he was sent to King's College, London, where he showed an early genius for mathematics, publis.h.i.+ng the a.n.a.logues of Pascal's Theorem at the age of eighteen. Entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in '63. In '67 he was second wrangler. Elected fellow of his college, he remained at Cambridge till 1870, when he accompanied the eclipse expedition to the Mediterranean. The next year he was appointed Professor of mathematics at London University, a post he held till his death. He was chosen F.R.S. '74. Married Miss Lucy Lane in April, '75. In the following year symptoms of consumption appeared, and he visited Algeria and Spain. He resumed work, but in '79 took a voyage to Madeira, where he died 3 March. Not long before his death appeared the first volume of his great mathematical work, Elements of Dynamic. Since his death have been published The Common Sense of the Exact Sciences, and Lectures and Essays, in two volumes, edited by Leslie Stephen and Mr. F. Pollock. These volumes include his most striking Freethought lectures and contributions to the Fortnightly and other reviews. He intended to form them into a volume on The Creed of Science. Clifford was an outspoken Atheist, and he wrote of Christianity as a religion which wrecked one civilisation and very nearly wrecked another.

Cloots or Clootz (Johann Baptist, afterwards Anacharsis) Baron du Val de Grace, Prussian enthusiast, b. near Cleves, 24 June, 1755, was a nephew of Cornelius de Pauw. In 1780 he published the The Certainty of the Proofs of Mohammedanism, under the pseudonym of Ali-gier-ber, an anagram of Bergier, whose Certainty of the Proofs of Christianity he parodies. He travelled widely, but became a resident of Paris and a warm partisan of the Revolution, to which he devoted his large fortune. He wrote a reply to Burke, and continually wrote and spoke in favor of a Universal Republic. On 19 June, 1790, he, at the head of men of all countries, asked a place at the feast of Federation, and henceforward was styled "orator of the human race." He was, with Paine, Priestley, Was.h.i.+ngton and Klopstock, made a French citizen, and in 1792 was elected to the Convention by two departments. He debaptised himself, taking the name Anacharsis, was a prime mover in the Anti-Catholic party, and induced Bishop Gobel to resign. He declared there was no other G.o.d but Nature. Incurring the enmity of Robespierre, he and Paine were arrested as foreigners. After two and a half months' imprisonment at St. Lazare, he was brought to the scaffold with the Hebertistes, 24 March, 1794. He died calmly, uttering materialist sentiments to the last.

Clough (Arthur Hugh), poet, b. Liverpool, 1 Jan. 1819. He was educated at Rugby, under Dr. Arnold, and at Oxford, where he showed himself of the Broad School. Leslie Stephen says, "He never became bitter against the Church of his childhood, but he came to regard its dogmas as imperfect and untenable." In '48 he visited Paris, and the same year produced his Bothie of Toper-na-Fuosich: a Long-Vacation Pastoral. Between '49 and '52 he was professor of English literature in London University. In '52 he visited the United States, where he gained the friends.h.i.+p of Emerson and Longfellow, and revised the Dryden translation of Plutarch's Lives. Died at Florence, 13 Nov. 1861. His Remains are published in two volumes, and include an essay on Religious Tradition and some notable poems. He is the Thyrsis of Matthew Arnold's exquisite Monody.

Cnuzius (Matthias). See Knutzen.

c.o.ke (Henry), author of Creeds of the Day, or collated opinions of reputable thinkers, in 2 vols, London, 1883.

Cole (Peter), a tanner of Ipswich, was burnt for blasphemy in the castle ditch, Norwich, 1587. A Dr. Beamond preached to him before the mayor, sheriffs, and aldermen, "but he would not recant." See Hamont.

Colenso (John William), b. 24 Jan. 1814. Was educated at St. John's, Cambridge, and became a master at Harrow. After acquiring fame by his valuable Treatise on Algebra, '49, he became first Bishop of Natal, '54. Besides other works, he published The Pentateuch and Book of Joshua Critically Examined, 1862-79, which made a great stir, and was condemned by both Houses of Convocation and its author declared deposed. The Privy Council, March '65, declared this deposition "null and void in law." Colenso pleaded the cause of the natives at the time of the Zulu War. He died 20 June, 1883.

Colins (Jean Guillaume Cesar Alexandre Hippolyte) Baron de, Belgian Socialist and founder of "Collectivism," b. Brussels, 24 Dec. 1783. Author of nineteen volumes on Social Science. He denied alike Monotheism and Pantheism, but taught the natural immortality of the soul. Died at Paris, 12 Nov. 1859. A number of disciples propagate his opinions in the Philosophie de l'Avenir.

Collins (Anthony), English Deist, b. Heston, Middles.e.x, 21 June, 1676. He studied at Cambridge and afterwards at the Temple, and became Justice of the Peace and Treasurer of the County of Ess.e.x. He was an intimate friend of Locke, who highly esteemed him and made him his executor. He wrote an Essay on Reason, 1707; Priestcraft in Perfection, 1710; a Vindication of the Divine Attributes, and a Discourse on Freethinking, 1713. This last occasioned a great outcry, as it argued that all belief must be based on free inquiry, and that the use of reason would involve the abandonment of supernatural revelation. In 1719 he published An Inquiry Concerning Human Liberty, a brief, pithy defence of necessitarianism, and in 1729 A Discourse on Liberty and Necessity. In 1724 appeared his Discourse on the Grounds and Reasons of the Christian Religion, and this was followed by The Scheme of Literal Prophecy Considered, 1726. He was a skilful disputant, and wrote with great ability. He is also credited with A Discourse Concerning Ridicule and Irony in Writing. Died at London, 13 Dec. 1729. Collins, says Mr. Leslie Stephen, "appears to have been an amiable and upright man, and to have made all readers welcome to the use of a free library." Professor Fraser calls him "a remarkable man," praises his "love of truth and moral courage," and allows that in answering Dr. Samuel Clarke on the question of liberty and necessity he "states the arguments against human freedom with a logical force unsurpa.s.sed by any necessitarian." A similar testimony to Collins as a thinker and dialectician is borne by Professor Huxley.

Colman (Lucy N.), American reformer, b. 26 July, 1817, has spent most of her life advocating the abolition of slavery, women's rights, and Freethought. She has lectured widely, written Reminisences in the Life of a Reformer of Fifty Years, and contributed to the Truthseeker and Boston Investigator.

Colotes, of Lampsacus, a hearer and disciple of Epicurus, with whom he was a favorite. He wrote a work in favor of his master's teachings. He held it was unworthy of a philosopher to use fables.

Combe (Abram), one of a noted Scotch family of seventeen, b. Edinburgh, 15 Jan. 1785. He traded as a tanner, but, becoming acquainted with Robert Owen, founded a community at Orbiston upon the principle of Owen's New Lanark, devoting nearly the whole of his large fortune to the scheme. But his health gave way and he died 11 Aug. 1827. He wrote Metaphysical Sketches of the Old and New Systems and other works advocating Owenism.

Combe (Andrew), physician, brother of the above, b. Edinburgh, 27 Oct. 1797; studied there and in Paris; aided his brother George in founding the Phrenological Society; wrote popular works on the Principles of Physiology and the Management of Infancy. Died near Edinburgh, 9 Aug. 1847.

Combe (George), phrenologist and educationalist, b. Edinburgh, 21 Oct. 1788. He was educated for the law. Became acquainted with Spurzheim, and published Essays on Phrenology, 1819, and founded the Phrenological Journal. In '28 he published the Const.i.tution of Man, which excited great controversy especially for removing the chimeras of special providence and efficacy of prayer. In '33 he married a daughter of Mrs. Siddons. He visited the United States and lectured on Moral Philosophy and Secular Education. His last work was The Relations between Science and Religion, '57, in which he continued to uphold Secular Theism. He also published many lectures and essays. Among his friends were Miss Evans (George Eliot), who spent a fortnight with him in '52. He did more than any man of his time, save Robert Owen, for the cause of Secular education. Died at Moor Park, Surrey, 14 Aug. 1858.

Combes (Paul), French writer, b. Paris, 13 June, 1856. Has written on Darwinism, '83, and other works popularising science.

Commazzi (Gian-Battista), Count author of Politica e religione trovate insieme nella persona di Giesu Cristo, Nicopoli [Vienna] 4 vols., 1706-7, in which he makes Jesus to be a political impostor. It was rigorously confiscated at Rome and Vienna.

Comparetti (Domenico), Italian philologist, b. Rome in 1835. Signor Comparetti is Professor at the Inst.i.tute of Superior Studies, Rome, and has written many works on the cla.s.sic writers, in which he evinces his Pagan partialities.

Comte (Isidore Auguste Marie Francois Xavier), French philosopher, mathematician and reformer, b. at Montpelier, 12 Jan. 1798. Educated at Paris in the Polytechnic School, where he distinguished himself by his mathematical talent. In 1817 he made the acquaintance of St. Simon, agreeing with him as to the necessity of a Social renovation based upon a mental revolution. On the death of St. Simon ('25) Comte devoted himself to the elaboration of an original system of scientific thought, which, in the opinion of some able judges, ent.i.tles him to be called the Bacon of the nineteenth century. Mill speaks of him as the superior of Descartes and Leibniz. In '25 he married, but the union proved unhappy. In the following year he lectured, but broke down under an attack of brain fever, which occasioned his detention in an asylum. He speedily recovered, and in '28 resumed his lectures, which were attended by men like Humboldt, Ducrotay, Broussais, Carnot, etc. In '30 he put forward the first volumes of his Course of Positive Philosophy, which in '42 was completed by the publication of the sixth volume. A condensed English version of this work was made by Harriet Martineau, '53. In '45 Comte formed a pa.s.sionate Platonic attachement to Mme. Clotilde de Vaux, who died in the following year, having profoundely influenced Comte's life. In consequence of his opinions, he lost his professors.h.i.+p, and was supported by his disciples--Mill, Molesworth and Grote, in England, a.s.sisting. Among other works, Comte published A General View of Positivism, '48, translated by Dr. Bridges, '65; A System of Positive Polity, '51, translated by Drs. Bridges, Beesley, F. Harrison, etc., '75-79; and A Positive Catechism, '54, translated by Dr. Congreve, '58. He also wrote on Positive Logic, which he intended to follow with Positive Morality and Positive Industrialism. Comte was a profound and suggestive thinker. He resolutely sets aside all theology and metaphysics, coordinates the sciences and subst.i.tutes the service of man for the wors.h.i.+p of G.o.d. Mr. J. Cotter Morison says "He belonged to that small cla.s.s of rare minds, whose errors are often more valuable and stimulating than other men's truths." He died of cancer in the stomach at Paris, 5 Sept. 1857.

Condillac (Etienne Bonnot de), French philosopher, b. Gren.o.ble, about 1715. His life was very retired, but his works show much acuteness. They are in 23 vols., the princ.i.p.al being A Treatise on the Sensations, 1764; A Treatise on Animals, and An Essay on the Origin of Human Knowledge. In the first-named he shows that all mental life is gradually built up out of simple sensations. Died 3 Aug. 1780.

Condorcet (Marie Jean Antoine Nicolas Caritat, Marquis de), French philosopher and politician, b. Ribemont, Picardy, 17 Sept. 1743. Dedicated to the Virgin by a pious mother, he was kept in girl's clothes until the age of 11. Sent to a Jesuit's school, he soon gave up religion. At sixteen he maintained a mathematical thesis in the presence of Alembert. In the next year he dedicated to Turgot a Profession of Faith. After some mathematical works, he was made member of the Academy, of which he was appointed perpetual secretary, 1773. In 1776 he published his atheistic Letters of a Theologian. He also wrote biographies of Turgot and Voltaire, and in favor of American independence and against negro slavery. In 1791 he represented Paris in the National a.s.sembly, of which he became Secretary. It was on his motion that, in the following year, all orders of n.o.bility were abolished. Voting against the death of the king and siding with the Gironde drew on him the vengeance of the extreme party. He took shelter with Madame Vernet, but fearing to bring into trouble her and his wife, at whose instigation he wrote his fine Sketch of the Progress of the Human Mind while in hiding, he left, but, being arrested, died of exhaustion or by poison self-administered, at Bourg la Reine, 27 March, 1794.

Condorcet (Sophie de Grouchy Caritat, Marquise de), wife of above, and sister of General Grouchy and of Mme. Cabanis, b. 1765. She married Condorcet 1786, and was considered one of the most beautiful women of her time. She shared her husband's sentiments and opinions and, while he was proscribed, supported herself by portrait painting. She was arrested, and only came out of prison after the fall of Robespierre. She translated Adam Smith's Theory of the Moral Sentiments, which she accompanied with eight letters on Sympathy, addressed to Cabanis. She died 8 Sept. 1822. Her only daughter married Gen. Arthur O'Connor.

Confucius (Kung Kew) or Kung-foo-tsze, the philosopher Kung, a Chinese sage, b. in the State of Loo, now part of Shantung, about B.C. 551. He was distinguished by filial piety and learning. In his nineteenth year he married, and three years after began as a teacher, rejecting none who came to him. He travelled through many states. When past middle age he was appointed chief minister of Loo, but finding the Duke desired the renown of his name without adopting his counsel, he retired, and devoted his old age to editing the sacred cla.s.sics of China. He died about B.C. 478. His teaching, chiefly found in the Lun-Yu, or Confucian a.n.a.lects, was of a practical moral character, and did not include any religious dogmas.

Congreve (Richard), English Positivist, born in 1819. Educated at Rugby under T. Arnold, and Oxford 1840, M.A. 1843; was fellow of Wadham College 1844-54. In '55 he published his edition of Aristotle Politics. He became a follower of Comte and influenced many to embrace Positivism. Translated Comte's Catechism of Positive Philosophy, 1858, and has written many brochures. Dr. Congreve is considered the head of the strict or English Comtists, and has long conducted a small "Church of Humanity."

Connor (Bernard), a physician, b. Co. Kerry, of Catholic family, 1666. He travelled widely, and was made court physician to John Sobieski, King of Poland. He wrote a work ent.i.tled Evangelium Medici (1697), in which he attempts to account for the Christian miracles on natural principles. For this he was accused of Atheism. He died in London 27 Oct. 1698.

Constant de Rebecque (Henri Benjamin), Swiss writer, b. Lausanne, 25 Oct. 1767, and educated at Oxford, Erlangen and Edinburgh. In 1795 he entered Paris as a protege of Mme. de Stael, and in 1799 became a member of the Tribunal. He opposed Buonaparte and wrote on Roman Polytheism and an important work on Religion Considered in its Source, its Forms and its Developments (6 vols.; 1824-32). Died 8 Dec. 1830. Constant professed Protestantism, but was at heart a sceptic, and has been called a second Voltaire. A son was executor to Auguste Comte.

Conta (Basil), Roumanian philosopher, b. Neamtza 27 Nov. 1845. Studied in Italy and Belgium, and became professor in the University of Ja.s.sy, Moldavia. In '77 he published in Brussels, in French, a theory of fatalism, which created some stir by its boldness of thought.

Conway (Moncure Daniel), author, b. in Fredericksburg, Stafford co. Virginia, 17 March, 1832. He entered the Methodist ministry '50, but changing his convictions through the influence of Emerson and Hicksite Quakers, entered the divinity school at Cambridge, where he graduated in '54 and became pastor of a Unitarian church until dismissed for his anti-slavery discourses. In '57 he preached in Cincinnati and there published The Natural History of the Devil, and other pamphlets. In '63 Mr. Conway came to England and was minister of South Place from the close of '63 until his return to the States in '84. Mr. Conway is a frequent contributor to the press. He has also published The Earthward Pilgrimage, 1870, a theory reversing Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress; collected a Sacred Anthology from the various sacred books of the world 1873, which he used in his pulpit; has written on Human Sacrifices, 1876, and Idols and Ideals, 1877. His princ.i.p.al work is Demonology and Devil Lore, 1878, containing much information on mythology. He also issued his sermons under the t.i.tle of Lessons for the Day, two vols., 1883, and has published a monograph on the Wandering Jew, a biography of Emerson, and is at present engaged on a life of Thomas Paine.

Cook (Kenningale Robert), LL.D., b. in Lancas.h.i.+re 26 Sept. 1845, son of the vicar of Stallbridge. When a boy he used to puzzle his mother by such questions as, "If G.o.d was omnipotent could he make what had happened not have happened." He was intended for the Church, but declined to subscribe the articles. Graduated at Dublin in '66, and took LL.D. in '75. In '77 he became editor of the Dublin University Magazine, in which appeared some studies of the lineage of Christian doctrine and traditions afterwards published under the t.i.tle of The Fathers of Jesus. Dr. Cook wrote several volumes of choice poems. Died July, 1886.

Cooper (Anthony Ashley), see Shaftesbury.

Cooper (Henry), barrister, b. Norwich about 1784. He was a schoolfellow of Wm. Taylor of Norwich. He served as mids.h.i.+pman at the battle of the Nile, but disliking the service became a barrister, and acquired some fame by his spirited defence of Mary Ann Carlile, 21 July, 1821, for which the report of the trial was dedicated to him by R. Carlile. He was a friend of Lord Erskine, whose biography he commenced. Died 19 Sept. 1824.

Cooper (John Gilbert), poet, b. Thurgaton Priory, Notts, 1723. Educated at Westminster School and Trinity College, Cambridge. An enthusiastic disciple of Lord Shaftesbury. Under the name of "Philaretes" he contributed to Dodsley's Museum. In 1749 he published a Life of Socrates, for which he was coa.r.s.ely attacked by Warburton. He wrote some poems under the signature of Aristippus. Died Mayfair, London, 14 April, 1769.

Cooper (Peter), a benevolent manufacturer, b. N. York, 12 Feb. 1791. He devoted over half a million dollars to the Cooper Inst.i.tute, for the secular instruction and elevation of the working cla.s.ses. Died 4 April, 1883.