Government in the United States, National, State and Local Part 7

=The Governor's Powers.=--The powers and duties of governor may be roughly grouped into four cla.s.ses: (1) his share in the making of the laws; (2) his power to execute the laws and administer the affairs of government; (3) his military power; and (4) his power to grant pardons for violations of the laws.

=Legislative Powers.=--_Power to Call Extra Sessions._--Everywhere he is empowered to call the legislature together in extraordinary session. He uses this power in case of emergencies, and also to secure the enactment of needed legislation which has been overlooked or neglected by the legislature at the regular session. In New York recently, when the legislature adjourned without enacting a promised law against race track gambling, the legislature was summoned in extraordinary session and executive pressure and public opinion were brought to bear upon it to compel the enactment of the law. Sometimes a great catastrophe occurs when the legislature is not in session; for example, the California earthquake, the Cherry mine disaster in Illinois, and the Galveston storm, each of which required the immediate attention of the legislature. In order to prevent the legislature when in extraordinary session from taking action for which there is really no need, the const.i.tutions of most states forbid it to consider any subjects not submitted to it by the governor; and in some states the length of an extra session is limited to thirty or sixty days.

[Ill.u.s.tration: LABORATORY FOR TESTING FOODS]

[Ill.u.s.tration: ROAD MAKING, VIRGINIA]

_The Executive Message._--The governor is generally required to give the legislature information concerning the affairs of the state and to recommend the enactment of such laws as in his judgment the public good requires, the idea being that he is more familiar than any one else with the defects of the existing laws and with the legislative needs of the state. This information, with the accompanying recommendations, is communicated to the legislature in a message at the beginning of the session,[13] and is often followed by special messages from time to time recommending consideration of particular matters that may arise in the course of the session. The weight which the recommendations of the governor have with the legislature depends, of course, upon his influence with the members and his standing with the people. If he belongs to the same political party which is in control of the legislature, and the party is not divided, or if he is especially aggressive and is backed by a strong public opinion throughout the state, his recommendations carry more weight than they would under opposite conditions.

[13] The const.i.tution of Illinois requires the governor to transmit a message to the legislature also at the end of his term, summing up the condition of affairs of the state at the time.

_The Veto Power._--Finally, in every state except North Carolina the governor has the power to veto bills pa.s.sed by the legislature. Owing to fear of executive tyranny, the veto power was generally withheld from governors for a considerable time after the Revolution; in fact, in only two states (Ma.s.sachusetts and New Hamps.h.i.+re) was this power granted to the governor before the close of the eighteenth century. The worst fears of executive tyranny, however, proved to be without foundation, and the advantage of vesting in the hands of the governor the power to correct the mistakes of the legislature by refusing to approve objectionable laws soon came to be generally appreciated. Under the interpretation of the veto power the governor may refuse to sign a bill either because, in his judgment, it is inconsistent with the const.i.tution which he has sworn to support, or because he thinks it unwise or inexpedient, in either case his judgment being conclusive. But manifestly, an absolute veto is too great a power to intrust to a single person, however wise he may be. The const.i.tutions of all the states, accordingly, empower the legislature to override the veto of the governor by repa.s.sing the vetoed bill, in which case it goes into effect notwithstanding the executive objection. To do this, however, a majority of two thirds or three fifths of the members of the legislature is usually necessary, the idea being that the judgment of so large a proportion of the legislature ought to be allowed to prevail over that of the governor in case of a difference of opinion. In the few remaining states a bare majority of the members of the legislature may override the executive veto, though not infrequently the statement of objections by the governor in his veto message serves to convince some of those who voted for the vetoed bill that it is unwise, and thus the veto will be sustained. When a bill is presented to the governor for his signature he is allowed a period ranging from three to ten days in which to consider it before taking action. A subject of criticism in some states is the practice of the legislature of delaying final action on many bills until the last days of the session and then sending them all at once to the governor so that the time allowed him for considering their merits is necessarily too short.

A wise provision found in the const.i.tutions of about thirty states is one which allows the governor to veto particular items in appropriation bills. Thus if the legislature pa.s.ses a bill carrying appropriations for a variety of objects, some worthy and others objectionable, the governor is not under the necessity of approving or rejecting the bill as a whole, but may approve the desirable portions and veto the others. In this way wasteful and objectionable appropriations of the public funds may be prevented without inconvenience. In a few states the governor may also veto particular sections of other bills.

=Executive and Administrative Powers of the Governor.=--The governor is generally charged by the const.i.tution with taking care that the laws are faithfully executed, though, as already stated, the executive power is really divided between him and a number of colleagues.

_Power over State Officers._--He generally has a certain power of oversight over the other princ.i.p.al state officers, but little power of control over them. There is a tendency, however, to enlarge his power in this respect.[14] Several const.i.tutions, for example, empower him to require reports from the princ.i.p.al officers, and in some states he is given the right to examine into the condition of the treasurer's and comptroller's offices and under certain conditions to remove the inc.u.mbent from office. In a very few states, also, the governor may remove sheriffs or mayors for negligence or abuse of power in the enforcement of the state laws.

[14] By an important act pa.s.sed in Illinois in 1917 a large number of bureaus and commissions were consolidated and placed under the authority of departmental heads appointed by the governor, who has a large power of control over them. A number of other states have since done likewise.

_Power of Appointment._--The governor's princ.i.p.al executive power consists of the right to appoint certain officers and boards, and sometimes to remove them, subject to certain restrictions. In the early days of our history, many of the state officers were chosen by the legislature, but with the growth of the democratic spirit the selection of these officials was taken from the legislature and they were made elective by the people. In a very few states the legislature still retains a considerable power of appointment. In most states, however, the governor appoints all officers not elected by the people. In a few states he appoints the judges; in half a dozen or more he appoints several of the princ.i.p.al state officers, such as the secretary of state and the attorney-general, and in most of them he appoints some of the important administrative officers and the members of various boards and commissions. In New York, for example, he appoints the superintendent of insurance and banking, the members of the two public service commissions, the superintendent of public works, the commissioner of agriculture, the commissioner of health, and other important officials.

In some states he appoints the railroad commissioners, the trustees of public inst.i.tutions, members of the state board of health, the members of various examining boards, pure food commissioners, factory inspectors, game commissioners, mining inspectors, and so on. As compared with the President of the United States, his power of appointment, however, is very small. Moreover, his power to appoint is usually limited by the condition that his nominations must be approved by the senate or the executive council where there is such a body.

_Power of Removal._--The governor can usually remove the officials whom he appoints, but rarely any others. But the power of removal must exist somewhere, because it would be intolerable to have to retain in the public service men who are dishonest, incapable, or otherwise unfit. The other methods of removal provided are impeachment, removal by resolution of the legislature, and occasionally removal by the courts. Removal by impeachment takes place by the preferment of a charge by the lower house of the legislature and trial by the upper house. This method, however, is c.u.mbersome and is rarely resorted to--never in the case of minor officials. Removal by resolution of the legislature is sometimes employed for getting rid of unfit or corrupt judges. In several states, the method of recall has been inst.i.tuted, by which, on pet.i.tion of 25 per cent of the voters, the officer must submit his case to the voters, and if a majority of them p.r.o.nounce in favor of his recall, he must retire.

=The Military Powers of the Governor.=--In every state the governor is commander in chief of the military forces of the state and also of the naval forces where there are any--a power which means little in times of peace. Whenever there are riots or serious disturbances, however, this power becomes important. When the disturbance is too great to be suppressed by the local authorities, the governor may order out a portion of the militia and may, if he elects, take charge of it himself.

There are few states where the governor has not at some time or another been compelled to make use of this power. Mobs sometimes break into jails and take out prisoners and lynch them; and sometimes strike riots occur in mining or manufacturing communities, in which cases the governor may be called upon to send troops to the scene of the disturbance and keep them there until quiet and order have been restored.

_Power to Suspend the Writ of Habeas Corpus._--A usual part of the governor's military power is the right to suspend the writ of habeas corpus in communities where great disorders prevail, that is, to suspend the power of the courts to release prisoners charged with violations of the law, thus leaving unhampered the power of the military authorities to restrain persons they may imprison. This power, however, is one which might be grossly abused; therefore many state const.i.tutions forbid the suspension of the writ except under extraordinary conditions, and a few, indeed, permit it to be suspended only by the legislature.

_The Military Forces of the State_ consist usually of a number of regiments of citizen soldiers, who are organized, uniformed, and officered after the manner of the regular army of the United States, who attend an annual encampment for purposes of drill and practice, and who must always be ready to respond to the call of the governor. At the head of the state militia is an officer called the adjutant general, through whom the military orders of the government are issued and carried out.

The governor also has a military staff which accompanies him on occasions of ceremony such as the inauguration of the President of the United States, grand army reviews, and the like.

=The Pardoning Power.=--In every state the governor is vested with the power of pardoning offenders against the laws of the state, but in most states the exercise of the power is subject to restrictions. The purpose of vesting this power in the governor is to make it possible to correct the errors of courts and juries, as where subsequent to the conviction evidence is brought to light showing that the person convicted is innocent, and has been wrongfully convicted, or where it becomes evident before the full penalty has been paid that the offender has been sufficiently punished and should be released.

In many states boards of pardon have been provided for sharing with the governor the responsibility for the exercise of this important prerogative.[15] These boards are of two kinds: first, those whose powers are limited to the hearing of applications for pardons and the making of recommendations to the governor, who is not bound by their advice; and second, those whose approval is necessary for the validity of any pardon granted by him. Convictions for treason and in impeachment cases are frequently excepted from the list of cases in which the governor may grant pardons, though in the case of treason he is sometimes given the power to suspend the execution of the sentence to await the action of the legislature. In a number of states notice of an application for a pardon must be published in the community where the applicant was convicted, in order that the people of the community who have been injured by his crime may have an opportunity to protest against the granting of a pardon to him. Sometimes also the approval of the presiding judge of the court in which the criminal was convicted is necessary before a pardon may be granted. It is usual to require the governor to make a report to the legislature at each session of all pardons granted, and at the same time give the reason in each case why a pardon was issued.

[15] In several states certain of the state officers, one of whom is the attorney-general, serve as the pardon board; in others, it is the senate; and in Ma.s.sachusetts and Maine it is the executive council.

Generally with the right of pardon is included the power to grant reprieves, that is, stays of execution; commutations, that is, the subst.i.tution of a lesser punishment in the place of the one imposed; and remission of fines and forfeitures. The right also usually includes the power of amnesty or the power of granting by proclamation pardons to large numbers of persons, as in the case of uprisings or insurrections against the laws and authority of the state. A pardon may be absolute or conditional; in the first case, it is granted without restriction; in the second case, it is valid only on certain conditions, as where the offender is required to lead an upright life or where he is required to leave the state. Generally the governor of the state, unlike the President of the United States, has no power to grant a pardon to an individual offender before he has been convicted.

=State Boards and Commissions.=--One of the remarkable political tendencies of recent years has been the multiplication of boards and commissions to aid in the government of the states. Every state now has a number of such boards, and in some of the populous commonwealths such as New York and Ma.s.sachusetts there are upwards of a hundred of them.

Hardly a legislative session pa.s.ses that does not create one or two commissions for some purpose or other. These boards or commissions fall roughly into five cla.s.ses, as follows:

First, many of these boards are of an industrial character, such as boards of agriculture, food and dairy commissions, live stock, fish, and mining commissions, and the like. In general their purpose is to promote the agricultural, mining, and industrial interests, generally, of the state, through the collection and dissemination of information concerning the best method of conducting those industries.

A second cla.s.s of boards are of a more distinctly scientific and research character, such as boards of health, bureaus of labor and statistics, geological commissions, forestry boards, and the like.

Although some of these, like the board of health, are charged with the execution of certain laws, the general purpose of all of them is scientific research and the collection of data.

A third cla.s.s of boards are those charged primarily with the supervision of certain businesses or industries affecting the public interest, and with the enforcement of the laws relating to such businesses. Such are the railroad commissions, commissions of insurance, public utility commissions, commissions of inland fisheries, and the like. In some instances these commissions not only have power to prescribe rules for businesses affected with a public interest, but also to fix the rates which they may charge.

A fourth group of commissions or boards are those charged with examining applicants for admission to practice certain professions or trades such as medicine, dentistry, pharmacy, architecture, and plumbing. The purpose of requiring such examinations is to secure a standard of efficiency, and to protect society against quacks.

A fifth cla.s.s includes those which have supervision over the public inst.i.tutions of the state, educational, penal, reformatory, charitable, etc. In recent years there has been a marked tendency to consolidate boards of this cla.s.s, by putting all the charitable and penal inst.i.tutions under the control of a single board, or under two boards, one for charitable and the other for penal inst.i.tutions. In a few states all the higher educational inst.i.tutions are under one board.

Members of all these cla.s.ses of boards are usually appointed by the governor, though occasionally a board is made up of members chosen by popular election.

_State Administrative Reorganization._--In 1917 a more systematic organization of state administration was established in Illinois. Nine main departments were established, each under a director, in place of a large number of former offices, boards, and commissions. Similar reorganizations have since taken place in a number of other states.

=The State Civil Service System.=--The number of persons necessary to carry on the state government in its various branches is very large. In order to provide a method by which subordinate employees can be selected with regard to their fitness rather than with reference to their party services, New York, Ma.s.sachusetts, Illinois, Wisconsin, and other states have enacted civil service laws establis.h.i.+ng the merit system of appointment.

The recent civil service laws provide, in general, for the cla.s.sification of all positions other than those filled by popular election, by executive appointment, or by legislative choice, and for appointment to these positions only after an examination of the candidates. Generally, those who pa.s.s the examination successfully are placed on an eligible list in the order of the grades which they receive, and when an office is to be filled, the appointing officer is required to make his choice from the three candidates highest on the list. For the filling of certain positions requiring technical skill, special non-compet.i.tive examinations are given and less consideration is given to academic qualifications. Certain positions are not placed under the civil service rules, and the appointing authority is allowed to make his choice without the necessity of examinations. Such are the positions of private secretary, chief clerk, and other employees who occupy a confidential relation to the heads of departments.

The chief advantage of the examination system of filling civil service positions is that it eliminates the evils of the spoils system and places the public service on a merit basis. It must be admitted, however, that the system is not perfect, because fitness for the performance of administrative duties cannot always be determined by examinations. Nevertheless, it is much better than the old method known as the "spoils system," under which appointments were made for party services; and it will in time, no doubt, be adopted in all the states.

=References.=--BEARD, American Government and Politics, ch. xxiv.

BRADFORD, Lessons of Popular Government, vol. ii, ch. 32. BRYCE, The American Commonwealth (abridged edition), ch. xl. DEALEY, Our State Const.i.tutions, ch. v. FINLEY and SANDERSON, The American Executive and Executive Methods, chs. iii, vi, vii, viii, ix. HART, Actual Government, ch. viii.

=Doc.u.mentary and Ill.u.s.trative Material.=--1. The legislative manual of the state. 2. Copies of the governor's inaugural address, messages to the legislature, veto messages, public proclamations, etc. 3. Copy of the revised statutes (chapter on the executive department). 4. Reports of the state officers to the governor.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. What is the term of the governor of your state? the salary? Do you think the salary is adequate? What are the governor's qualifications?

Compare the provisions of the present const.i.tution with those of previous const.i.tutions in regard to these matters. Is the governor eligible to succeed himself? Is it customary to reelect the governor in your state? What, in your opinion, are the relative merits of a one-year term and a four-year term for the governor?

2. Suppose a question should arise as to who was really elected governor, what authority would determine the matter? Are there any circ.u.mstances under which the legislature may elect the governor? Is the governor of your state required to vacate his office immediately at the expiration of his term, or is he allowed to hold over until his successor has qualified?

3. Make a list of the names of the men who have held the office of governor of your state, indicating the years they served and the political parties to which they belonged. (This information can be obtained from the blue book or legislative manual or from some history of the state.)

4. Does the const.i.tution of your state provide for a lieutenant governor? In general, what has been the type of men elected to this office?

5. Make a list (from the blue book) of the offices in your state that are filled by appointment by the governor. Do you think the appointive power of the governor ought to be enlarged? Mention some offices now filled by popular election which, in your opinion, should be filled by executive appointment.

6. May the governor of your state remove officers appointed by him? If so, under what conditions? May he remove any officers elected by the people? If he finds that the treasurer of the state has misappropriated a large amount of state money, can he remove him? May the governor of the state remove any local officers? Thus if the sheriff should allow a prisoner in his custody to be lynched by a mob or the mayor of a city should refuse to execute a state prohibition law, may the governor suspend or remove such officers for neglect of duty? If not, are there any means of punis.h.i.+ng the negligent officer?

7. What were the princ.i.p.al recommendations in the message of the governor to the legislature at its last session?

8. May the governor of your state veto particular items in appropriation bills? May he sign a bill after the adjournment of the legislature? May he veto a bill upon grounds of public policy as well as upon grounds of unconst.i.tutionality? How many bills were vetoed by the governor at the last session?

9. Is there a civil service law in your state? If so, to what offices and employments does it apply? How are appointments made under the law?

10. For what purposes and under what circ.u.mstances may the governor use the military forces in your state? Have there been any instances recently in which the militia was ordered out? What is meant by the governor's "staff"? Find out from the blue book how many regiments of the national guard there are in your state.

11. Are there any restrictions on the power of the governor to grant pardons? May he also grant reprieves and commutations? May he remit fines and forfeitures? May he grant amnesties? Is there a pardon board in your state? If so, how is it const.i.tuted and what are its powers? How many pardons have been granted by the present governor?

12. May the courts control the governor by issuing writs to compel him to do his duty or to restrain him from doing certain things? May he be arrested for wrongdoing? May he be compelled to give testimony in the courts? If not, why not? Is there any way by which an unworthy governor may be put out of office before the expiration of his term? Describe the procedure by which this is done.