Lessons in Music Form Part 2

TEMPO.--This refers to the degree of motion. The musical picture is not constant, but panoramic; we never hear a piece of music all at once, but as a panorama of successive sounds. Tempo refers to the rate of speed with which the scroll pa.s.ses before our minds. Thus we speak of rapid tempo (_allegro_, and the like), or slow tempo (_adagio_), and so forth.

BEATS.--The beats are the units in our System of Measurement,--as it were, the inches upon our yardstick of time; they are the particles of time that we mark when we "count," or that the conductor marks with the "beats" of his baton. Broadly speaking, the ordinary beat (in moderate tempo) is about equivalent to a second of time; to less or more than this, of course, in rapid or slow tempo. Most commonly, the beat is represented in written music by the quarter-note, as in 2-4, 3-4, 4-4, 6-4 measure. But the composer is at liberty to adopt any value he pleases (8th, 16th, half-note) as beat. In the first study in Clementi's "Gradus ad Parna.s.sum," the time-signature is 3-1, the whole note as beat; in the 8th Sung Without Words it is 6-16, the sixteenth note as beat; in the last pianoforte sonata of Beethoven (op. 111), last movement, the time-signatures are 9-16, 6-16, and 12-32, the latter being, probably, the smallest beat ever chosen.

MEASURES.--A measure is a group of beats. The beats are added together, in measures, to obtain a larger unit of time, because larger divisions are more convenient for longer periods; just as we prefer to indicate the dimensions of a house, or farm, in feet or rods, rather than in inches.

Measures differ considerably in extent in various compositions, inasmuch as the number of beats enclosed between the vertical bars may be, and is, determined quite arbitrarily. What is known as a Simple measure contains either the two beats (heavy-light) of the fundamental duple group, or the three beats (heavy-light-light) of the triple group, shown in the preceding chapter. Compound measures are such as contain more than two or three beats, and they must always be multiplications, or groups, of a Simple measure; for whether so small as to comprise only the fundamental groups of two or three beats (as in 2-4, 3-8, 3-4 measure), or so large as to embrace as many as twelve beats or more (as in 4-4, 6-4, 6-8, 9-8, 12-8 measure), the measure represents, practically, either the duple or triple species, Simple or Compound. Thus, a measure of four beats, sometimes called (needlessly) quadruple rhythm, is merely twice two beats; the species is actually _duple_; the alternation of heavy and light pulses is regular; and therefore the third beat is again an accent, as well as the first, though _less heavy_. A measure of 6-8 is triple species, with accents at beats one and four, precisely as if an additional vertical bar were inserted after the third beat. In a word, then, the size of the adopted measure is of no consequence, as long as it is retained uniformly through the section to which it belongs; and there is no _real_ difference between 2-4 and 4-4 measure, excepting in the number of bars used.

A curious and rare exception to this rule of the compound measure occurs when five or seven beats are grouped together. This involves a mingling of the duple and triple species, and, consequently, an irregular disposition of the accents; for instance, 5-4 measure is either 3+2 or 2+3 beats, with corresponding accentuation:

[Ill.u.s.tration: Beat accentuation]

RHYTHM.--This word signifies arrangement,--a principle applied, in music, to the distribution or arrangement of the tones according to their various _time-values_. The system of measurement (or metric system) furnishes tone material with all the details of division, proportion and comparison; but this, alone, is not rhythm. The metric system affords the basis for rational and definable rhythm, but "rhythm" itself does not enter into the proposition until differentiated factors are a.s.sociated and opposed to each other.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Example 3. Rhythm.]

The first measure of this hymn is, by itself, merely an exponent of the metric principle, for it consists of three uniform quarter-notes. The second measure, however, is a rhythmic one, because, by dotting the first of the three beats, three different time-values are obtained (dotted quarter, eighth, and quarter). Further, by a.s.sociation and comparison with each other, both measures a.s.sume a collective rhythmic significance.

The rhythmic disposition of the tones is to a certain extent optional with the composer, but by no means wholly so; the rules of rhythm are probably the most definite and obvious of all the rules of music writing. They do not concern the a.n.a.lytical student intimately, but at least the general distinction between regular and irregular rhythm should be understood:--We have seen that the natural accent (the "heavy" pulse) is invariably represented by the first beat of a rhythmic group; and that one or two lighter pulses intervene before the next accent appears. Further, it is self-evident that the rhythmic weight of a tone is proportionate to its length, or time-value; longer tones produce heavier, and shorter tones lighter, impressions. The deduction from these two facts is, then, that the rhythmic arrangement is _regular_ when the comparatively longer tones occupy the accented beats, or the accented fractions of the beats; and _irregular_ when shorter tones occupy the accents, or when longer tones are s.h.i.+fted to any comparatively lighter pulse of the measure or group.

The rhythm of the second measure in Ex. 3 is regular, because the longest tone stands at the beginning of the measure, thus confirming (and, in fact, creating) the accent. The rhythm in Ex. 1 is also regular, throughout, the light eighth-notes occupying the light third beat, and the heavy dotted-quarter the heavy pulse (in the third measure). Ex. 2 is strikingly definite in rhythm, because the time-values are so greatly diversified; and the arrangement is regular.

On the other hand, the following is an example of irregular rhythm:

[Ill.u.s.tration: Example 4. Fragment of Beethoven.]

The longer (heavier) tones are placed in the middle of the measure, between the beats; the tie at the end of measure 3 places the heavy note at the end, instead of the beginning, of the measure, and cancels the accent of the fourth measure. These irregular forms of rhythm are called syncopation. See also Ex. 6, second Phrase.

MELODY.--Any succession of _single_ tones is a melody. If we strike the keys of the piano with two or more fingers of each hand simultaneously, we produce a body of tones, which--if they are so chosen that they blend harmoniously--is called a Chord; and a series of such chords is an ill.u.s.tration of what is known as Harmony. If, however, we play with one finger only, we produce a melody. The human voice, the flute, horn,--all instruments capable of emitting but one tone at a time,--produce melody.

Melody const.i.tutes, then, a _line of tones_. If, as we have said, Time is the canvas upon which the musical images are thrown, Melodies are the lines which trace the design or form of these images. This indicates the extreme importance of the melodic idea in music form.

Without such "tone-lines" the effect would be similar to that of daubs or ma.s.ses of color without a drawing, without the evidence of contour and shape.

A _good_ melody, that is, a melody that appeals to the intelligent music lover as tuneful, pleasing, and intelligible, is one in which, first of all, each successive tone and each successive group of tones stands in a rational harmonic relation to the one before it, and even, usually, to several preceding tones or groups. In other words, the tones are not arranged haphazard, but with reference to their harmonious agreement with each other. For a model of good melody, examine the very first sentence in the book of Beethoven's pianoforte sonatas:--

[Ill.u.s.tration: Example 5. Fragment of Beethoven.]

The tones bracketed _a_, if struck all together, unite and blend in one harmonious body, so complete is the harmonic agreement of each succeeding tone with its fellows; the same is true of the group marked _c_. The tones bracketed _b_ and _d_ do not admit of being struck simultaneously, it is true, but they are all parts of the same key (F minor), and are closely and smoothly connected; hence their concurrence, though not one of harmony (chord), is one of intimate tone relation and proximity. Further, the whole group marked 2 corresponds in its linear formation, its rising, poising and curling, exactly to the preceding group, marked 1. This, then, is a _good_ melody,--tuneful, interesting, intelligible, striking and absolutely definite.

In the second place, the tones and groups in a good melody are measured with reference to harmony of time-values; that is, their metric condition, and their rhythmic arrangement, corroborate the natural laws already defined:--uniformity of fundamental pulse, uniform recurrence of accent, and sufficient regularity of rhythmic figure to insure a distinct and comprehensible total impression. This also may be verified in the time-values of Ex. 5. Scrutinize also, the melodic and rhythmic conditions of Exs. 1 and 2,--and the examples on later pages,--and endeavor to vindicate their cla.s.sification as "good"

melodies. Ex. 4, though an exposition of irregular rhythm, is none the less excellent on that account; on the contrary, this irregularity, because wisely balanced by sufficient evidence of harmonious and logical agreement, only heightens the beauty and effectiveness of the melody.

Whenever whole bodies of tone are played successively, a number of melody lines are being described,--as many, in fact, as there are tones in each body. For example, in playing a hymn-tune we describe (on the keyboard) the four separate melodies known as the soprano, alto, tenor and ba.s.s voices. In a duet, unaccompanied, there are two melodic lines; if accompanied, other melodic lines are added to these. Thus we recognize the same system of a.s.sociated lines in music as in architecture or drawing. Very rarely indeed does one single unbroken line portray a complete image.

But in music, as in drawing, the lines differ in their degrees of importance and prominence; and, very commonly, one line over-shadows all, or nearly all the rest. This strongest tone-line is therefore apt to be designated, somewhat unfairly, _the_ melody (the "tune" or "air"

is more just). But, at all events, _this predominating melodic line is the most important factor of the form, the one upon which the definition and recognition of the "form" depend_; and it is therefore necessary that the student learn to distinguish it, to acquire the habit of centring his attention upon it,--in reading, listening to, or a.n.a.lyzing music; and, in playing, to give it the emphasis it requires.

The importance of a tone-line depends solely upon its conspicuousness.

The princ.i.p.al melody--_the_ Melody--is the one which is most salient, which most attracts the hearer's attention. For this reason the composer is induced to place his chief melody _above the rest of the tone-lines, because the uppermost tone strikes the ear more acutely than the lower ones_, and therefore the succession of highest tones const.i.tutes a conspicuous line that attracts and impresses the sense most keenly.

Here then, at the top of the harmonic tone-complex, we look for the chief melody; and here it will be found,--excepting when arbitrary emphasis (by accentuation) is imparted to some lower tone-line, so that it, for the time being, a.s.sumes a prominence equal, or superior, to that of the uppermost line. (This divided prominence is seen in the 18th Song Without Words--the _duet_.)

LESSON 2.--Write careful and complete answers to the following questions:--

1. What is Time, as applied to music?

2. What is _tempo_?

3. Give a full definition of the beat.

4. By what time-value is it most commonly indicated?

5. Give a full definition of the measure.

6. Why do measures differ in size?

7. What is a simple measure?

8. What is a compound measure?

9. Define duple and triple rhythms. (See also Chap. I.)

10. What does the term rhythm signify?

11. How is it applied in music?

12. When is the rhythm regular?

13. When is the rhythm irregular?

14. Define the difference between melody and harmony.

15. Give a full definition of melody.

16. What are the conditions of a good melody?

17. In what respect does music resemble architecture or drawing?

18. Are the tone-lines in a composition of equal importance?