The English Language Part 30

1. Parts _beyond_ the limits of the area occupied by the so-called Indo-Europeans.

2. Parts _within_ the limits of the so-called Indo-Europeans; but so fortified by nature as to have been the stronghold of a retiring population.

What are the chief parts coming under the first of these conditions?

_a._ The countries beyond the Indo-Europeans of the Scandinavian and Slavonic areas, _i.e._ the countries of the Laplanders and Finnlanders.

_b._ The countries beyond the Indo-Europeans of the Iranian stock, _i.e._ the Dekkan, or the country of those natives of India (whatever they may be) whose languages are not derived from the Sanscrit.

What are parts coming under the second of these conditions?

_a._ The Basque districts of the Pyrenees, where the language represents that of the aborigines of Spain anterior to the conquest of the Roman.

_b._ The Albanians.--Such the doctrine of the _continuity_ of an _ante_-Indo-European population, from Cape Comorin to Lapland, and from Lapland to the Pyrenees. There is _some_ philological evidence of this: whether there is _enough_ is another matter.

This view, which on its _philological_ side has been taken up by Rask, Kayser, and the chief Scandinavian scholars, and which, whether right or wrong, is the idea of a bold and comprehensive mind, as well as a powerful instrument of criticism in the way of a provisional theory, has also been adopted on its _physiological_ side by the chief Scandinavian anatomists and palaeontologists--Retzius, Eschricht, Niilson, and others. Skulls differing in shape from the Celtic skulls of Gaul, and from the Gothic skulls of Germany and Scandinavia, have been found in considerable numbers; and generally in burial-places of an apparently greater antiquity than those which contain typical Celtic, or typical Gothic crania. Hence there is some _anatomical_ as well as philological evidence: whether there is enough is another question.

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PART III.

SOUNDS, LETTERS, p.r.o.nUNCIATION, SPELLING.

CHAPTER I.

GENERAL NATURE OF ARTICULATE SOUNDS.

-- 196. To two points connected with the subject of the following Chapter, the attention of the reader is requested.

I. In the comparison of sounds the ear is liable to be misled by the eye.

The syllables _ka_ and _ga_ are similar syllables. The vowel is in each the same, and the consonant is but slightly different. Now the words _ka_ and _ga_ are more allied to each other than the words _ka_ and _ba_, _ka_ and _ta_, &c., because the consonantal sounds of _k_ and _g_ are more allied than the consonantal sounds of _k_ and _b_, _k_ and _t_.

Comparing the syllables _ga_ and _ka_, we see the affinity between the sounds, and we see it at the first glance. It lies on the surface, and strikes the ear at once.

It is, however, very evident that ways might be devised, or might arise from accident, of concealing the likeness between the two sounds, or, at any rate, of making it less palpable. One of such ways would be a faulty mode of spelling. If instead of _ga_ we wrote _gha_ the following would be the effect: the syllable would appear less simple than it really was; it would look as if it consisted of three parts instead of two, and consequently its affinity to _ka_ would seem less than it really was. It is perfectly true that a little consideration would tell us that, as long as the sound remained the same, the relation {142} of the two syllables remained the same; and that, if the contrary appeared to be the case, the ear was misled by the eye. Still a little consideration would be required.

Now in the English language we have, amongst others, the following modes of spelling that have a tendency to mislead:--

The sounds of _ph_ and of _f_, in _Philip_ and _fillip_, differ to the eye, but to the ear are identical. Here a difference is simulated.

The sounds of _th_ in _thin_, and of _th_ in _thine_, differ to the ear, but to the eye seem the same. Here a difference is concealed.

These last sounds appear to the eye to be double or compound. This is not the case; they are simple single sounds, and not the sounds of _t_ followed by _h_, as the spelling leads us to imagine.

II. Besides improper modes of spelling, there is another way of concealing the true nature of sounds. If I say that _ka_ and _ga_ are allied, the alliance is manifest; since I compare the actual sounds. If I say _ka_ and _gee_ are allied, the alliance is concealed; since I compare, not the actual sounds, but only the names of the letters that express those sounds.

Now in the English language we have, amongst others, the following names of letters that have a tendency to mislead:--

The sounds _fa_ and _va_ are allied. The names _eff_ and _vee_ conceal this alliance.

The sounds _sa_ and _za_ are allied. The names _ess_ and _zed_ conceal the alliance.

In comparing sounds it is advisable to have nothing to do either with letters or names of letters. Compare the sounds themselves.

In many cases it is sufficient, in comparing consonants, to compare syllables that contain those consonants; _e.g._, to determine the relations of _p_, _b_, _f_, _v_, we say _pa_, _ba_, _fa_, _va_; or for those of _s_ and _z_, we say _sa_, _za_. Here we compare _syllables_, each consonant being followed by a vowel. At times this is insufficient. We are often obliged to isolate the consonant from its vowel, and bring our organs to utter (or half utter) imperfect sounds of _p'_, _b'_, _t'_, _d'_. In doing this we isolate the consonant. {143}

-- 197. Let any of the _vowels_ (for instance, the _a_ in _father_) be sounded. The lips, the tongue, and the parts within the throat remain in the same position: and as long as these remain in the same position the sound is that of the vowel under consideration. Let, however, a change take place in the position of the organs of sound; let, for instance, the lips be closed, or the tongue be applied to the front part of the mouth: in that case the vowel sound is cut short. It undergoes a change. It terminates in a sound that is different, according to the state of those organs whereof the position has been changed. If, on the vowel in question, the lips be closed, there then arises an imperfect sound of _b_ or _p_. If, on the other hand, the tongue be applied to the front teeth, or to the fore part of the palate, the sound is one (more or less imperfect) of _t_ or d. This fact ill.u.s.trates the difference between the vowels and the consonants. It may be verified by p.r.o.nouncing the _a_ in _fate_, _ee_ in _feet_, _oo_ in _book_, _o_ in _note_, &c.

It is a further condition in the formation of a vowel sound, that the pa.s.sage of the breath be uninterrupted. In the sound of the _l'_ in _lo_ (isolated from its vowel) the sound is as continuous as it is with the _a_ in _fate_. Between, however, the consonant _l_ and the vowel _a_ there is this difference: with _a_, the pa.s.sage of the breath is uninterrupted; with _l_, the tongue is applied to the palate, breaking or arresting the pa.s.sage of the breath.

-- 198. The primary division of our articulate sounds is into vowels and consonants. The latter are again divided into liquids (_l_, _m_, _n_, _r_) and mutes (_p_, _b_, _f_, _v_, _t_, _d_, _g_, _s_, _z_, &c.) _Definitions_ for the different sorts of articulate sounds have still to be laid down. In place of these, we have general a.s.sertions concerning the properties and qualities of the respective cla.s.ses. Concerning the consonants as a cla.s.s, we may predicate one thing concerning the liquids, and concerning the mutes, another. What the nature of these a.s.sertions is, will be seen after the explanation of certain terms.

-- 199. _Sharp and flat._--Take the sounds of _p_, _f_, _t_, _k_, _s_; isolate them from their vowels, and p.r.o.nounce them. The sound is the sound of a whisper. {144}

Let _b_, _v_, _d_, _g_, _z_, be similarly treated. The sound is no whisper, but one at the natural tone of our voice.

Now _p_, _f_, _t_, _k_, _s_ (with some others that will be brought forward anon) are _sharp_, whilst _b_, _v_, &c. are _flat_. Instead of _sharp_, some say _hard_, and instead of _flat_, some say _soft_. The Sanskrit terms _sonant_ and _surd_ are, in a scientific point of view, the least exceptionable. They have, however, the disadvantage of being pedantic. The _tenues_ of the cla.s.sics (as far as they go) are sharp, the _mediae_ flat.

_Continuous and explosive._--Isolate the sounds of _b_, _p_, _t_, _d_, _k_, _g_. p.r.o.nounce them. You have no power of prolonging the sounds, or of resting upon them. They escape with the breath, and they escape at once.

It is not so with _f_, _v_, _sh_, _zh_. Here the breath is transmitted by degrees, and the sound can be drawn out and prolonged for an indefinite s.p.a.ce of time. Now _b_, _p_, _t_, &c. are explosive _f_, _v_, &c.

continuous.

-- 200. Concerning the vowels, we may predicate _a_) that they are all continuous, _b_) that they are all flat.

Concerning the liquids, we may predicate _a_) that they are all continuous, _b_) that they are all flat.

Concerning the mutes, we may predicate _a_) that one half of them is flat, and the other half sharp, and _b_) that some are continuous, and that others are explosive.

-- 201.--The letter _h_ is no articulate sound, but only a breathing.

For the semivowels and the diphthongs, see the sequel.

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CHAPTER II.

SYSTEM OF ARTICULATE SOUNDS.

-- 202.--The attention of the reader is now directed to the following _foreign_ vowel sounds.

1. _e ferme_, of the French.--This is a sound allied to, but different from, the _a_ in _fate_, and the _ee_ in _feet_. It is intermediate to the two.