Where Good Ideas Come From Part 8

Pulsars-pulsating neutron stars that appear to blinking-were observed and discovered in 1967 by Jocelyn Bell Burnell, a graduate student working under the British astronomer Antony Hewish, who would later receive a n.o.bel.

RNAALSO GENETIC (1967).

Mirroring previous discoveries that DNA carried genetic material, American microbiologist Carl Woese theorized in 1967 that RNA, ribonucleic acid, could store information such as genes, and may have played a role in the development of early and precellular life.

RESTRICTION ENZYMES (1968).

First isolated in 1968 by geneticists H. O. Smith, K. W. Wilc.o.x, and T. J. Kelly at Johns Hopkins University, restriction enzymes are found in bacteria and can cut DNA at specific sequences, thus paving the way for the future of recombinant DNA molecules.

GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE (1968-1974) The use of visual metaphors to represent data on a computer screen, along with the concept of a mouse as pointing device, dates back to a legendary demo by the Stanford professor Douglas Engelbart. Elements of the GUI were also evident in Ivan Sutherland's 1963 program Sketchpad. The idea was refined and expanded by the Xerox PARC lab in the early 1970s.

INTERNET (1970--1975).

a.s.sisted by many other computer scientists, the American Vinton Cerf designed and created the original model of the Internet, building on his early research and experiments with packet-switching networks, supported by the U.S. Department of Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency.

CT SCAN (1971).

Using a grant provided by the British Department of Health and Social Services, British electrical engineer G.o.dfrey Hounsfield conceived and designed the first CT scan (computerized axial tomography), which sent multiple X-ray beams through the human body, providing a near three-dimensional image.

MRI (1974).

Building on the discoveries of early MRI inventors, Raymond Damadian discovered that magnetic resonance imaging would command different responses from cancerous and noncancerous animal tissue.

ENDORPHINS (1975).

Discovered at about the same time by two research teams working independently, endorphins were first described when American scientist John Hughes and German-born British biologist Hans Kosterlitz published their results of a study in which they removed an amino-acid molecule from the brain of a pig, which they believed would bolster investigations of the brain's receptors for morphine.

PERSONAL COMPUTER (1976).

Legendarily working out of a garage, entrepreneurs and college dropouts Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs designed one of the first personal computers, or microcomputer-Apple I-in 1976, creating the first single-circuit board computer, though many important models, including the Altair, preceded it.

ONCOGENES (1976).

Bolstering the understanding of cancer and how malignant tumors are created, American immun.o.biologist J. Michael Bishop and cellular biologist Harold Varmus discovered the first human oncogene in 1970.

RNA SPLICING (1977).

British biochemist Richard J. Roberts and American Phillip A. Sharp share both the credit and the n.o.bel Prize for their independent discoveries of gene-splicing-the removal of introns-though some controversy arose over lack of acknowledgment of Roberts's colleagues.

ARCHAEA (1977).

Realizing that a number of organisms did not fit into the traditional categorization of plant or animal, American microbiologist Carl Woese and his colleagues created a new cla.s.sification of life, archaebacteria, shortened to archaea, to accompany bacteria and fungi.

GLOBAL WARMING (1970-1980) While theories had been proposed throughout the twentieth century suggesting that carbon dioxide buildup could lead to a warmer planet, the science of global warming did not reach critical ma.s.s until the 1970s and 1980s, as a broad network of scientists, working in multiple fields, began to track and model changes in the earth's atmosphere.

ASTEROID EXTINCTION (1980).

On the basis of substantial geological evidence, scientific father-son team Luis and Walter Alvarez theorized in 1980 that 65 million years ago, a giant asteroid had struck earth, killing the dinosaur population.

DNA FORENSICS (1984).

British geneticist Alec Jeffreys discovered DNA forensic fingerprinting by accident while looking at an X-ray from a DNA experiment that appeared to show the variations in the DNA of his technician's family. Jeffreys soon after realized that DNA fingerprinting could be used to identify individuals by their genetic code. Dozens of other scientists refined Jeffreys's approach before it could be used in criminal cases.

UNIVERSE ACCELERATING (1988).

Based on observations of the stars created by white dwarf star explosions, High-Z Supernova team scientists led by astronomers Adam Riess and Brian Schmidt determined that the universe was expanding at an accelerating rate.

WORLD WIDE WEB (1989-1992) British software engineer Tim Berners-Lee designed the program for the World Wide Web almost completely independently while working at CERN (European Laboratory for Particle Physics), in an attempt to create a "hypertext notebook," which was inspired by the memory of a childhood encyclopedia.

GAMMA RAY BURSTS (1997).

Gamma ray bursts-flashes of gamma rays coming from deep outer s.p.a.ce-were first observed in 1967 by uncla.s.sified military satellites. The bursts befuddled scientists, uncertain of their nature or origin, until 1997, when the Italian-Dutch satellite BeppoSAX was able to target the burst position, leading scientists to understand that the rays were caused by residual X-ray emissions.

Notes and Further Reading ON INNOVATION.

An extensive literature exists on the question of innovation, particularly with reference to scientific and technological fields. I have tried to include a broad survey of these works in the bibliography, but several works have been disproportionately influential on my argument and method in this book. Dean Keith Simonton's Origins of Genius Origins of Genius and Howard Gruber's and Howard Gruber's Darwin on Man Darwin on Man both explicitly take a Darwinian approach to innovation, and use that approach to make sense of Darwin's own distinct genius. Arthur Koestler's both explicitly take a Darwinian approach to innovation, and use that approach to make sense of Darwin's own distinct genius. Arthur Koestler's Act of Creation Act of Creation and Thomas Kuhn's and Thomas Kuhn's Structure of Scientific Revolutions Structure of Scientific Revolutions remain essential platforms for the understanding of new ideas. Richard Florida's remain essential platforms for the understanding of new ideas. Richard Florida's Rise of the Creative Cla.s.s Rise of the Creative Cla.s.s looks at creativity in an urban context. Richard Ogle's looks at creativity in an urban context. Richard Ogle's Smart World Smart World explores the intellectual and physical context of idea formation, as does Howard Gardner's explores the intellectual and physical context of idea formation, as does Howard Gardner's Creating Minds Creating Minds. Everett M. Rogers's Diffusion of Innovations Diffusion of Innovations is the canonical study of the way good ideas spread through organizations and society. Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi's is the canonical study of the way good ideas spread through organizations and society. Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi's Flow Flow and and Creativity Creativity explore the psychological states of intense creativity. The power of group and "end-user" innovation has been persuasively doc.u.mented by Eric von Hippel in explore the psychological states of intense creativity. The power of group and "end-user" innovation has been persuasively doc.u.mented by Eric von Hippel in Democratizing Innovation Democratizing Innovation and by Amar Bhide's and by Amar Bhide's Venturesome Economy Venturesome Economy. And many of our cliches about the origins of good ideas are delightfully debunked in Scott Berkun's Myths of Innovation. Myths of Innovation.

INTRODUCTION: REEF, CITY, WEB.

The account of Darwin's voyage to the Keeling Islands is drawn from Darwin's own narrative in Voyage of the Voyage of the Beagle, as well as from some of the correspondence included in Beagle, as well as from some of the correspondence included in The Autobiography of Charles Darwin The Autobiography of Charles Darwin, and R. D. Keynes's Charles Darwin's Charles Darwin's Beagle Beagle Diary Diary. The connection between Darwin's theories about coral reef formation and his later insights into the mechanism of natural selection is addressed in Howard Gruber's Darwin on Man Darwin on Man. The original study on superlinear scaling in urban environments is available in "Growth, Innovation, Scaling, and the Pace of Life in Cities," by Bettencourt, et al. A thoughtful layperson's introduction to Kleiber's law and its application to urban culture can be found in George Johnson's "Of Mice and Elephants: A Matter of Scale." For a thorough history of HDTV's development, see Joel Brinkley's Defining Vision. Defining Vision. An informative chart of twentieth-century technology adoption rates in the United States can be found at An informative chart of twentieth-century technology adoption rates in the United States can be found at http://www.nytimes.com/imagepages/2008/02/10/opinion/10op.graphic.ready.html. John Cloud's "The Gurus of YouTube" offers a history of the company's founding. For a compelling overview of the Web's "generative" powers, see Jonathan Zittrain's The Future of the Internet-And How to Stop It The Future of the Internet-And How to Stop It. For more on the evolution of software interfaces, see Howard Rheingold's Tools for Thought Tools for Thought and my and my Interface Culture Interface Culture. The notion of "patterns" of innovation is loosely based on the concept of patterns and metapatterns developed by Gregory Bateson in Mind and Nature. Mind and Nature. The "long zoom" approach is discussed in more detail in the appendices of my earlier books The "long zoom" approach is discussed in more detail in the appendices of my earlier books Everything Bad Is Good for You Everything Bad Is Good for You and and The Invention of Air The Invention of Air. The idea has roots in Edward O. Wilson's notion of "consilience," and was partially inspired by a "pace-layered" drawing of civilization that I first encountered in Stewart Brand's How Buildings Learn. How Buildings Learn.CHAPTER 1: THE ADJACENT POSSIBLE.

For a history of the incubator, see Jeffrey Baker's "The Incubator and the Medical Discovery of the Premature Infant." The site Neonatology on the Web (http://www.neonatology.org/) maintains an excellent archive on the history of incubators and other neonatal technologies. For more on Design That Matters's approach to innovation, see Timothy Prestero's "Better by Design." Additional information on the NeoNurture device can be found at designthatmatters.org. Kauffman's theory of the adjacent possible is outlined in his book Investigations Investigations. The social causes of multiple simultaneous discovery are outlined in Ogburn and Thomas's "Are Inventions Inevitable?" The phenomenon is also discussed at length in Dean Keith Simonton's Creativity in Science Creativity in Science. For more on the discovery of oxygen, see Kuhn's Structure of Scientific Revolutions Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Joe Jackson's World on Fire World on Fire, and my own Invention of Air Invention of Air. Charles Babbage's attempt to build the first computer is chronicled in Doron Swade's The Difference Engine. The Difference Engine. The story of The story of Apollo 13 Apollo 13 is told in Jim Lovell and Jeffrey Kluger's is told in Jim Lovell and Jeffrey Kluger's Lost Moon Lost Moon.CHAPTER 2: LIQUID NETWORKS.

On the importance of carbon and liquid water to the origins of life, I recommend several sources: a collection of essays, edited by J. William Schopf, ent.i.tled Life's Origin Life's Origin; Philip Ball's imaginative "biography" of water, Life's Matrix Life's Matrix; and Carl Zimmer's Science Science essay "Evolutionary Roots: On the Origin of Life on Earth." The original Miller-Urey experiment was published in essay "Evolutionary Roots: On the Origin of Life on Earth." The original Miller-Urey experiment was published in Science Science in the essay "A Production of Amino Acids Under Possible Primitive Earth Conditions." Silicon-based life appears in multiple science fictions, including Stanley Weinbaum's in the essay "A Production of Amino Acids Under Possible Primitive Earth Conditions." Silicon-based life appears in multiple science fictions, including Stanley Weinbaum's A Martian Odyssey A Martian Odyssey and in the form of the Horta, a silicon-based creature discovered in episode 26 of the original and in the form of the Horta, a silicon-based creature discovered in episode 26 of the original Star Trek Star Trek series. Chris Langton's theories about the generative power of liquid networks are developed in his essay "Life at the Edge of Chaos." Illuminating accounts of his work appear in both James Gleick's series. Chris Langton's theories about the generative power of liquid networks are developed in his essay "Life at the Edge of Chaos." Illuminating accounts of his work appear in both James Gleick's Chaos Chaos and Kevin Kelly's and Kevin Kelly's Out of Control. Out of Control. Wikipedia maintains an excellent "timeline of innovations," which provided a useful starting point for the charts of historical innovation that are included in this book. On the emergence and innovations of early Renaissance towns, Braudel's Wikipedia maintains an excellent "timeline of innovations," which provided a useful starting point for the charts of historical innovation that are included in this book. On the emergence and innovations of early Renaissance towns, Braudel's Wheels of Commerce Wheels of Commerce remains the canonical text. The history of double-entry accounting is told in John Richard Edwards's remains the canonical text. The history of double-entry accounting is told in John Richard Edwards's History of Financial Accounting History of Financial Accounting. For more on the power of collective decision-making, see James Surowiecki's Wisdom of Crowds Wisdom of Crowds, Howard Rheingold's Smart Mobs Smart Mobs, Clay s.h.i.+rky's Here Comes Everybody Here Comes Everybody, and Kevin Kelly's Out of Control Out of Control. Jaron Lanier's critique of the "hive mind" appears in his book You Are Not a Gadget You Are Not a Gadget, and in shorter form in the essay "Digital Maoism." For more on Kevin Dunbar's research, see "What Scientific Thinking Reveals About the Nature of Cognition." Malcolm Gladwell's take on the Jane Jacobsian future of works.p.a.ce design appeared in the New Yorker New Yorker in the essay "Designs for Working." Stewart Brand devotes a chapter of in the essay "Designs for Working." Stewart Brand devotes a chapter of How Buildings Learn How Buildings Learn to the "low road" approach of Building 20. MIT also maintains a website that includes reminiscences about the building at to the "low road" approach of Building 20. MIT also maintains a website that includes reminiscences about the building at http://libraries.mit.edu/archives/mithistory/building20/quotes.html.CHAPTER 3: THE SLOW HUNCH.

The intelligence failures surrounding the Phoenix Memo and the Moussaoui investigation are addressed in the 9/11 Commission Report 9/11 Commission Report and in Bill Gertz's and in Bill Gertz's Breakdown Breakdown. A transcript of Minneapolis field agent Coleen Rowley's letter to FBI director Mueller, detailing the failed connections leading up to the 9/11 attacks, is available at http://www.time.com/time/covers/1101020603/memo.html. The website http://www.historycommons.org/ contains an exhaustive archive of doc.u.ments and press reports related to the 9/11 attacks, including the most comprehensive timeline of the late summer months preceding the attack that I have encountered. Antonio Damasio's research into emotional brain flash a.s.sessments can be found in his artful work contains an exhaustive archive of doc.u.ments and press reports related to the 9/11 attacks, including the most comprehensive timeline of the late summer months preceding the attack that I have encountered. Antonio Damasio's research into emotional brain flash a.s.sessments can be found in his artful work Descartes' Error Descartes' Error. Snap judgments are also investigated in Gladwell's Blink Blink and Jonah Lehrer's and Jonah Lehrer's How We Decide How We Decide. For more on Priestley's slow hunch, see my book The Invention of Air The Invention of Air. Microsoft's princ.i.p.al scientist Bill Buxton writes about the slow hunch model in technology in his BusinessWeek BusinessWeek essay "The Long Nose of Innovation." Howard Gruber's essay "The Long Nose of Innovation." Howard Gruber's Darwin on Man Darwin on Man is both the canonical study of Darwin's intellectual journey toward the idea of natural selection and one of the most insightful books on scientific creativity ever written. Images from Erasmus Darwin's commonplace book can be found online at is both the canonical study of Darwin's intellectual journey toward the idea of natural selection and one of the most insightful books on scientific creativity ever written. Images from Erasmus Darwin's commonplace book can be found online at http://www.revolutionaryplayers.org.uk/. John Mason's self-help guide to commonplace books appeared in his Treatise on Knowledge. Treatise on Knowledge. Robert Darnton's essay "Extraordinary Commonplaces," from the Robert Darnton's essay "Extraordinary Commonplaces," from the New York Review of Books New York Review of Books, provides an erudite account of the impact that commonplace books had on the Enlightenment-era literary imagination. Tim Berners-Lee's Weaving the Web Weaving the Web tells the story of his invention of the Web, along with his ideas for improving the current platform. tells the story of his invention of the Web, along with his ideas for improving the current platform. Myths of Innovation Myths of Innovation author Scott Berkun has an interesting a.n.a.lysis of Google's "innovation time off" program on his blog at author Scott Berkun has an interesting a.n.a.lysis of Google's "innovation time off" program on his blog at http://www.scottberkun.com/blog/2008/thoughts-on-googles-20-time/.CHAPTER 4: SERENDIPITY.

For more on the battle between the chemical and electrical interpretations of brain activity, as well as additional material on Loewi's dream, see Eliot Valenstein's The War of the Soups and the Sparks The War of the Soups and the Sparks. Edward O. Wilson's Consilience Consilience discusses the intellectual revelations of dreamwork, with specific reference to Kekule's vision of Ouroboros. Ullrich Wagner's experiment is doc.u.mented in the discusses the intellectual revelations of dreamwork, with specific reference to Kekule's vision of Ouroboros. Ullrich Wagner's experiment is doc.u.mented in the Nature Nature essay "Sleep Inspires Insight." Robert Thatcher's study of different phase states can be found in "Intelligence and EEG Phase Reset" from the journal essay "Sleep Inspires Insight." Robert Thatcher's study of different phase states can be found in "Intelligence and EEG Phase Reset" from the journal NeuroImage NeuroImage. For more on neurological serendipity, see David Robson's New Scientist New Scientist essay "Disorderly Genius." William James's quote on the chaotic nature of "higher mind" appears in essay "Disorderly Genius." William James's quote on the chaotic nature of "higher mind" appears in Great Men, Great Thoughts, and the Environment Great Men, Great Thoughts, and the Environment. For an entertaining and provocative overview of the evolution of s.e.xual reproduction, see Matt Ridley's Red Queen Red Queen and Jared Diamond's and Jared Diamond's Why Is s.e.x Fun? Why Is s.e.x Fun? John Barth's discussion of serendipity comes from his novel John Barth's discussion of serendipity comes from his novel The Last Voyage of Somebody the Sailor. The Last Voyage of Somebody the Sailor. Henri Poincaire's pedestrian epiphanies are recounted in his Henri Poincaire's pedestrian epiphanies are recounted in his Foundations of Science Foundations of Science. A surprisingly long list of essays have argued that the Web is diminis.h.i.+ng our opportunities for serendipitous discovery, including William McKeen's "The Endangered Joy of Serendipity" and Damon Darlin's "Serendipity, Lost in the Digital Deluge." Ca.s.s Sunstein has discussed his notion of an architecture of serendipity in Going to Extremes Going to Extremes, and, with Richard Thaler, in Nudge Nudge. Alex Osborn's brainstorming technique was introduced in his book Applied Imagination Applied Imagination. For a discussion of the problems with brainstorming and group creativity in general, see B. A. Nistad's "Illusion of Group Productivity," from the European Journal of Social Psychology. European Journal of Social Psychology. For more on open R&D labs, see Don Tapscott's For more on open R&D labs, see Don Tapscott's Wikinomics Wikinomics.CHAPTER 5: ERROR.

For more on Lee de Forest's extraordinary career as an inventor (and, in later life, a Hollywood denizen) see his autobiography, Father of Radio Father of Radio. W. Rupert Maclaurin's essay "The Process of Technological Innovation" also contains revealing a.n.a.lysis of de Forest's error-p.r.o.ne invention of the triode. Additional information on Wilson Greatbatch's invention of the pacemaker can be found in John Adam's "Making Hearts Beat." Will Stanley Jevons's reference to the "errors of the great mind" appears in his "Principles of Science." For more on the generative power of error, see Kathryn Schulz's superb Being Wrong Being Wrong. I have discussed the connection between Kuhn's scientific paradigms and the long zoom approach in my Invention of Air. Invention of Air. For an excellent discussion of Dunbar's research and the accidental discovery of cosmic background radiation, see Jonah Lehrer's For an excellent discussion of Dunbar's research and the accidental discovery of cosmic background radiation, see Jonah Lehrer's Wired Wired essay "Accept Defeat." A good introduction to Charlan Nemeth's research can be found in her essays "Differential Contributions of Majority and Minority Influence" and "Dissent as Driving Cognition, Att.i.tudes, and Judgments." For a taste of the statistics of free a.s.sociation, see Palermo's essay "Accept Defeat." A good introduction to Charlan Nemeth's research can be found in her essays "Differential Contributions of Majority and Minority Influence" and "Dissent as Driving Cognition, Att.i.tudes, and Judgments." For a taste of the statistics of free a.s.sociation, see Palermo's Word a.s.sociation Norms. Word a.s.sociation Norms. A discussion of Darwin's failed theory of pangenesis can be found in Kirschner and Gerhart's A discussion of Darwin's failed theory of pangenesis can be found in Kirschner and Gerhart's Plausibility of Life. Plausibility of Life. An overview of how the human genetic mutation rate was calculated can be found in Elie Dolgin's An overview of how the human genetic mutation rate was calculated can be found in Elie Dolgin's Nature News Nature News article "Human Mutation Rate Revealed." For more on Susan Rosenberg's research on stress and mutation rates, see her essay "Microbiology and Evolution: Modulating Mutation Rates in the Wild" in article "Human Mutation Rate Revealed." For more on Susan Rosenberg's research on stress and mutation rates, see her essay "Microbiology and Evolution: Modulating Mutation Rates in the Wild" in Science Science. For more on the "fail fast" movement, see Doug Hall's BusinessWeek BusinessWeek essay "Fail Fast, Fail Cheap" and Timothy Prestero's "Better by Design." essay "Fail Fast, Fail Cheap" and Timothy Prestero's "Better by Design."CHAPTER 6: EXAPTATION.

Gutenberg's invention of the printing press is recounted in John Man's Gutenberg Gutenberg. I have also drawn upon the insights on Gutenberg's revolution that appear in Richard Ogle's Smart World Smart World, and Elizabeth Eisenstein's Printing Press as an Agent of Change. Printing Press as an Agent of Change. Gould and Vrba's concept of exaptation originally appeared in Gould and Vrba's concept of exaptation originally appeared in Paleobiology Paleobiology in the essay "Exaptation-A Missing Term in the Science of Form." For more on the concept, see Buss et al's in the essay "Exaptation-A Missing Term in the Science of Form." For more on the concept, see Buss et al's Adaptations, Exaptations, and Spandrels Adaptations, Exaptations, and Spandrels. For more on the history of Google, see John Battelle's The Search The Search. Franco Moretti discusses cultural exaptation in his essay "On Literary Evolution," included in his Signs Taken for Wonders. Signs Taken for Wonders. Koestler's Koestler's Act of Creation Act of Creation contains many examples of exaptative thought, though he does not explicitly use the term, since the book predates Gould and Vrba's essay. For more on urban subcultures, see Claude Fischer's essays "Toward a Subcultural Theory of Urbanism" and "The Subcultural Theory of Urbanism: A Twentieth-Year a.s.sessment." Jane Jacobs's contains many examples of exaptative thought, though he does not explicitly use the term, since the book predates Gould and Vrba's essay. For more on urban subcultures, see Claude Fischer's essays "Toward a Subcultural Theory of Urbanism" and "The Subcultural Theory of Urbanism: A Twentieth-Year a.s.sessment." Jane Jacobs's Death and Life of Great American Cities Death and Life of Great American Cities and and The Economy of Cities The Economy of Cities contain many similar insights about the capacity of big cities to cultivate small cl.u.s.ters of interests. (Chris Anderson discusses this in the context of his "long tail" theory in contain many similar insights about the capacity of big cities to cultivate small cl.u.s.ters of interests. (Chris Anderson discusses this in the context of his "long tail" theory in The Long Tail. The Long Tail.) For more on the concept of the "Third Place," see Ray Oldenburg's The Great Good Place. The Great Good Place. For more on the innovations of the British coffeehouse, see Brian Cowan's For more on the innovations of the British coffeehouse, see Brian Cowan's Social Life of Coffee Social Life of Coffee, Tom Standage's History of the World in Six Gla.s.ses History of the World in Six Gla.s.ses, and my Invention of Air. Invention of Air. Freud's Vienna salon is described in the context of innovation in Howard Gardner's Freud's Vienna salon is described in the context of innovation in Howard Gardner's Creating Minds Creating Minds. Martin Ruef's research appears in his essay "Strong Ties, Weak Ties and Islands," originally published in Industrial and Corporate Change Industrial and Corporate Change. For more on Ronald Burt's a.n.a.lysis of social networks and organizational innovation, see his "Social Contagion and Innovation" and Social Origins of Good Ideas Social Origins of Good Ideas. Richard Ogle gives a riveting account of the exaptative creativity of Watson and Crick in Smart World. Smart World. For more on Apple's design and development processes, see Lev Grossman's "How Apple Does It." Howard Gruber describes his "networks of enterprise" in his essay "The Evolving Systems Approach to Creative Work." For more on John Snow's diverse intellectual interests, see Peter Vinten-Johansen's For more on Apple's design and development processes, see Lev Grossman's "How Apple Does It." Howard Gruber describes his "networks of enterprise" in his essay "The Evolving Systems Approach to Creative Work." For more on John Snow's diverse intellectual interests, see Peter Vinten-Johansen's Cholera, Chloroform, and the Science of Medicine Cholera, Chloroform, and the Science of Medicine and my and my Ghost Map. Ghost Map.CHAPTER 7: PLATFORMS.

Charles Lyell's uniformitarian theory is outlined in his Principles of Geology Principles of Geology. For more on Lyell's reaction to Darwin's idea, see the correspondence included in Darwin's Autobiography Autobiography. For more on the concept of a keystone species, see R. T. Paine's "Conversation on Refining the Concept of Keystone Species," published in Conservation Biology. Conservation Biology. The concept of an ecosystem engineer is introduced in Clive Jones's "Organisms as Ecosystem Engineers." For a delightful history of the origins of GPS, see William Guier and George Weiffenbach's first-person account, "Genesis of Satellite Navigation." Franco Moretti has published a number of important works that look at the literary history of genres and devices, including The concept of an ecosystem engineer is introduced in Clive Jones's "Organisms as Ecosystem Engineers." For a delightful history of the origins of GPS, see William Guier and George Weiffenbach's first-person account, "Genesis of Satellite Navigation." Franco Moretti has published a number of important works that look at the literary history of genres and devices, including The Way of the World The Way of the World and and Graphs, Maps, Trees Graphs, Maps, Trees. For more on the innovation track record of the Twitter platform, see my essay "How Twitter Will Change the Way We Live" from Time Time magazine. Like many Web successes, Twitter's platform innovation relies on two key contributions from its users: end-user innovation and "venturesome" consumption. For more on these concepts, see Eric von Hippel's magazine. Like many Web successes, Twitter's platform innovation relies on two key contributions from its users: end-user innovation and "venturesome" consumption. For more on these concepts, see Eric von Hippel's Democratizing Innovation Democratizing Innovation and Amar Bhide's and Amar Bhide's Venturesome Economy Venturesome Economy. For more on the politics of collaborative platforms, see Clay s.h.i.+rky's Here Comes Everybody Here Comes Everybody. Tim O'Reilly discusses the idea of government-as-platform in a Forbes Forbes column t.i.tled "Gov 2.0: The Promise of Innovation." An account of the Redbird artificial reef can be found in Ian Urbina's column t.i.tled "Gov 2.0: The Promise of Innovation." An account of the Redbird artificial reef can be found in Ian Urbina's New York Times New York Times article "Growing Pains for a Deep-Sea Home Built of Subway Cars." For more on the Jacobs vision of neighborhoods as emergent platforms, see my article "Growing Pains for a Deep-Sea Home Built of Subway Cars." For more on the Jacobs vision of neighborhoods as emergent platforms, see my Emergence Emergence. Claudio Richter's coral research is described in John Roach's National Geographic National Geographic article "Rich Coral Reefs in Nutrient-Poor Water: Paradox Explained?" For more on Calera's technology, see David Biello's article "Rich Coral Reefs in Nutrient-Poor Water: Paradox Explained?" For more on Calera's technology, see David Biello's Scientific American Scientific American article "Cement from CO article "Cement from CO2: A Concrete Cure for Global Warming?" I address the notion of the Web as rain forest in a Discover Discover column, "Why the Web Is Like a Rainforest," and in a speech from the SXSW conference t.i.tled "Old Growth Media and the Future of News," a transcript of which is available at column, "Why the Web Is Like a Rainforest," and in a speech from the SXSW conference t.i.tled "Old Growth Media and the Future of News," a transcript of which is available at http://www.stevenberlinjohnson.com.

CONCLUSION: THE FOURTH QUADRANT.

Willis Carrier's life story is told in his Father of Air Conditioning Father of Air Conditioning. Moretti's concept of "distant reading" is outlined in his Graphs, Maps, Trees. Graphs, Maps, Trees. The innovation survey also draws on the histriometric approach to innovation developed by Dean Keith Simonton in The innovation survey also draws on the histriometric approach to innovation developed by Dean Keith Simonton in Genius, Creativity, and Leaders.h.i.+p Genius, Creativity, and Leaders.h.i.+p and and Creativity in Science. Creativity in Science. Yochai Benkler includes a more complex chart of potential innovation frameworks in Yochai Benkler includes a more complex chart of potential innovation frameworks in Wealth of Networks. Wealth of Networks. For more on the notion of collective invention, see Peter B. Meyer's "Episodes of Collective Invention." Marx and Engels's reaction to Darwin's work is discussed in Gruber's For more on the notion of collective invention, see Peter B. Meyer's "Episodes of Collective Invention." Marx and Engels's reaction to Darwin's work is discussed in Gruber's Darwin on Man. Darwin on Man. For more on the metaphor of the tangled bank and its importance to the theory of evolution, see Carl Zimmer's For more on the metaphor of the tangled bank and its importance to the theory of evolution, see Carl Zimmer's Tangled Bank. Tangled Bank. McPherson's dispute with Evans and his correspondence with Jefferson are discussed in Joseph Scott Miller's essay "Non.o.bviousness: Looking Back and Looking Ahead," included in the collection McPherson's dispute with Evans and his correspondence with Jefferson are discussed in Joseph Scott Miller's essay "Non.o.bviousness: Looking Back and Looking Ahead," included in the collection Intellectual Property and Information Wealth Intellectual Property and Information Wealth, edited by Peter K. Yu. I first encountered Jefferson's quote in Lawrence Lessig's I first encountered Jefferson's quote in Lawrence Lessig's Future of Ideas Future of Ideas. That book, along with his books Code Code and and Remix Remix, is essential reading for anyone interested in the notion of an information commons.

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