Encyclopaedia Britannica Volume 2, Slice 2 Part 27

Anubis was the princ.i.p.al G.o.d in the capitals of the XVIIth and XVIIIth nomes of Upper Egypt, and secondary G.o.d in the XIIIth and probably in the XIIth nome; but his cult was universal. To begin with, he was the G.o.d of the dead, of the cemetery, of all supplies for the dead, and therefore of embalming when that became customary. In very early inscriptions the funerary prayers in the tombs are addressed to him almost exclusively, and he always took a leading place in them. In the scene of the weighing of the soul before Osiris, dating from the New kingdom onwards, Anubis attends to the balance while Thoth registers the result. Anubis was believed to have been the embalmer of Osiris: the mummy of Osiris, or of the deceased, on a bier, tended by this G.o.d, is a very common subject on funerary tablets of the late periods. Anubis came to be considered especially the attendant of the G.o.ds and conductor of the dead, and hence was commonly identified with Hermes (cf. the name Hermanubis); but the role of Hermes as the G.o.d of eloquence, inventor of arts and recorder of the G.o.ds was taken by Thoth. In those days Anubis was considered to be son of Osiris by Nephthys; earlier perhaps he was son of Re, the sun-G.o.d. In the 2nd century A.D. his aid was "compelled"

by the magicians and necromancers to fetch the G.o.ds and entertain them with food (especially in the ceremony of gazing into the bowl of oil), and he is invoked by them sometimes as the "Good Ox-herd." The cult of Anubis must at all times have been very popular in Egypt, and, belonging to the Isis and Serapis cycle, was introduced into Greece and Rome.

See Erman, _Egyptian Religion_; Budge, _G.o.ds of the Egyptians_; Meyer, in _Zeits. f. Aeg. Spr._ 41-97. (F. Ll. G.)

ANURADHAPURA, a ruined city of Ceylon, famous for its ancient monuments.

It is situated in the North-central province. Anuradhapura became the capital of Ceylon in the 5th century B.C., and attained its highest magnificence about the commencement of the Christian era. In its prime it ranked beside Nineveh and Babylon in its colossal proportions--its four walls, each 16 m. long, enclosing an area of 256 sq. m.,--in the number of its inhabitants, and the splendour of its shrines and public edifices. It suffered much during the earlier Tamil invasions, and was finally deserted as a royal residence in A.D. 769. It fell completely into decay, and it is only of recent years that the jungle has been cleared away, the ruins laid bare, and some measure of prosperity brought back to the surrounding country by the restoration of hundreds of village tanks. The ruins consist of three cla.s.ses of buildings, _dagobas_, monastic buildings, and _pokunas_. The _dagobas_ are bell-shaped ma.s.ses of masonry, varying from a few feet to over 1100 in circ.u.mference. Some of them contain enough masonry to build a town for twenty-five thousand inhabitants. Remains of the monastic buildings are to be found in every direction in the shape of raised stone platforms, foundations and stone pillars. The most famous is the Brazen Palace erected by King Datagamana about 164 B.C. The _pokunas_ are bathing-tanks or tanks for the supply of drinking-water, which are scattered everywhere through the jungle. The city also contains a sacred Bo-tree, which is said to date back to the year 245 B.C. The railway was extended from Matale to Anuradhapura in 1905. Population: town, 3672; province, 79,110.

ANVIL (from Anglo-Saxon _anfilt_ or _onfilti_, either that on which something is "welded" or "folded," cf. German _falzen_, to fold, or connected with other Teutonic forms of the word, cf. German _amboss_, in which case the final syllable is from "beat," and the meaning is "that on which something is beaten"), a ma.s.s of iron on which material is supported while being shaped under the hammer (see FORGING). The common blacksmith's anvil is made of wrought iron, often in America of cast iron, with a smooth working face of hardened steel. It has at one end a projecting conical _beak_ or _bick_ for use in hammering curved pieces of metal; occasionally the other end is also provided with a bick, which is then partly rectangular in section. There is also a square hole in the face, into which tools, such as the anvil-cutter or chisel, can be dropped, cutting edge uppermost. For power hammers the anvil proper is supported on an anvil block which is of great ma.s.siveness, sometimes weighing over 200 tons for a 12-ton hammer, and this again rests on a strong foundation of timber and masonry or concrete. In anatomy the term anvil is applied to one of the bones of the middle ear, the _incus_, which is articulated with the _malleus_.

ANVILLE, JEAN BAPTISTE BOURGUIGNON D' (1697-1782), perhaps the greatest geographical author of the 18th century, was born at Paris on the 11th of July 1697. His pa.s.sion for geographical research displayed itself from early years: at the age of twelve he was already amusing himself by drawing maps for Latin authors. Later, his friends.h.i.+p with the antiquarian, Abbe Longuerue, greatly aided his studies. His first serious map, that of Ancient Greece, was published when he was fifteen, and at the age of twenty-two he was appointed one of the king's geographers, and began to attract the attention of the first authorities. D'Anville's studies embraced everything of geographical nature in the world's literature, as far as he could master it: for this purpose he not only searched ancient and modern historians, travellers and narrators of every description, but also poets, orators and philosophers. One of his cherished objects was to reform geography by putting an end to the blind copying of older maps, by testing the commonly accepted positions of places through a rigorous examination of all the descriptive authority, and by excluding from cartography every name inadequately supported. Vast s.p.a.ces, which had before been covered with countries and cities, were thus suddenly reduced almost to a blank.

D'Anville was at first employed in the humbler task of ill.u.s.trating by maps the works of different travellers, such as Marchais, Charlevoix, Labat and Duhalde. For the history of China by the last-named writer he was employed to make an atlas, which was published separately at the Hague in 1737. In 1735 and 1736 he brought out two treatises on the figure of the earth; but these attempts to solve geometrical problems by literary material were, to a great extent, refuted by Maupertuis'

measurements of a degree within the polar circle. D'Anville's historical method was more successful in his 1743 map of Italy, which first indicated numerous errors in the mapping of that country, and was accompanied by a valuable memoir (a novelty in such work), showing in full the sources of the design. A trigonometrical survey which Benedict XIV. soon after had made in the papal states strikingly confirmed the French geographer's results. In his later years d'Anville did yeoman service for ancient and medieval geography, accomplis.h.i.+ng something like a revolution in the former; mapping afresh all the chief countries of the pre-Christian civilizations (especially Egypt), and by his _Memoire et abrege de geographie ancienne et generale_ and his _etats formes en Europe apres la chute de l'empire romain en occident_ (1771) rendering his labours still more generally useful. In 1754, at the age of fifty-seven, he became a member of the Academie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres, whose transactions he enriched with many papers. In 1775 he received the only place in the Academie des Sciences which is allotted to geography; and in the same year he was appointed, without solicitation, first geographer to the king. His last employment consisted in arranging his collection of maps, plans and geographical materials. It was the most extensive in Europe, and had been purchased by the king, who, however, left him the use of it during his life. This task performed, he sank into a total imbecility both of mind and body, which continued for two years, till his death in January 1782.

D'Anville's published memoirs and dissertations amounted to 78, and his maps to 211. A complete edition of his works was announced in 1806 by de Manne in 6 vols. quarto, only two of which had appeared when the editor died in 1832. See Dacier's _eloge de d'Anville_ (Paris, 1802).

Besides the separate works noticed above, d'Anville's maps executed for Rollin's _Histoire ancienne_ and _Histoire romaine_, and his _Traite des mesures anciennes et modernes_ (1769), deserve special notice.

ANWARI [Auhad-uddin Ali Anwari], Persian poet, was born in Khorasan early in the 12th century. He enjoyed the especial favour of the sultan Sinjar, whom he attended in all his warlike expeditions. On one occasion, when the sultan was besieging the fortress of Hazarasp, a fierce poetical conflict was maintained between Anwari and his rival Ras.h.i.+di, who was within the beleaguered castle, by means of verses fastened to arrows. Anwari died at Balkh towards the end of the 12th century. The _Diwan_, or collection of his poems, consists of a series of long poems, and a number of simpler lyrics. His longest piece, _The Tears of Khora.s.san_, was translated into English verse by Captain Kirkpatrick (see also PERSIA. _Literature_).

ANWEILER, or ANNWEILER, a town of Germany, in the Bavarian Palatinate, on the Queich, 8 m. west of Landau, and on the railway from that place to Zweibrucken. Pop. 3700. It is romantically situated in the part of the Haardt called the Pfalzer Schweiz (Palatinate Switzerland), and is surrounded by high hills which yield a famous red sandstone. On the Sonnenberg (1600 ft.) lie the ruins of the castle of Trifels, in which Richard Coeur de Lion was imprisoned in 1193. The industries include cloth-weaving, tanning, dyeing and saw mills. There is also a considerable trade in wine.

ANZENGRUBER, LUDWIG (1839-1889), Austrian dramatist and novelist, was born at Vienna on the 29th of November 1839. He was educated at the _Realschule_ of his native town, and then entered a bookseller's shop; from 1860 to 1867 he was an actor, without, however, displaying any marked talent, although his stage experience later stood him in good stead. In 1869 he became a clerk in the Viennese police department, but having in the following year made a success with his anti-clerical drama, _Der Pfarrer von Kirchfeld_, he gave up his appointment and devoted himself entirely to literature. He died at Vienna on the both of December 1889. Anzengruber was exceedingly fertile in ideas, and wrote a great many plays. They are mostly of Austrian peasant life, and although somewhat melancholy in tone are interspersed with bright and witty scenes. Among the best known are _Der Meineidbauer_ (1871), _Die Kreuzelschreiber_ (1872), _Der G'wissenswurm_ (1874), _Hand und Herz_ (1875), _Doppelselbstmord_ (1875), _Das vierte Gebot_ (1877), and _Der Fleck auf der Ehr'_ (1889). Anzengruber also published a novel of considerable merit, _Der Schandfleck_ (1876; remodelled 1884); and various short stories and tales of village life collected under the t.i.tle _Wolken und Sunn'schein_ (1888).

Anzengruber's collected works, with a biography, were published in 10 vols. in 1890 (3rd ed. 1897); his correspondence has been edited by A.

Bettelheim (1902). See A. Bettelheim, _L. Anzengruber_ (1890); L.

Rosner, _Erinnerungen an L. Anzengruber_ (1890): H. Sittenberger, _Studien zur Dramaturgie der Gegenwart_ (1899); S. Friedmann, _L.

Anzengruber_ (1902).

ANZIN, a town of northern France, in the department of Nord, on the Scheldt, 1 m. N.W. of Valenciennes, of which it is a suburb. Pop.

(1906) 14,077. Anzin is the centre of important coal-mines of the Valenciennes basin belonging to the Anzin Company, the formation of which dates to 1717. The metallurgical industries of the place are extensive, and include iron and copper founding and the manufacture of steam-engines, machinery, chain-cables and a great variety of heavy iron goods. There are also gla.s.s-works and breweries.

AONIA, a district of ancient Boeotia, containing the mountains Helicon and Cithaeron, and thus sacred to the Muses, who are called by Pope the "Aonian maids."

AORIST (from Gr. [Greek: aoristos], indefinite), the name given in Greek grammar to certain past tenses of verbs (first aorist, second aorist).

AOSTA (anc. _Augusta Praetoria Sala.s.sorum_), a town and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of Turin, 80 m. N.N.W. by rail of the town of Turin, and 48 m. direct, situated 1910 ft. above sea-level, at the confluence of the Buthier and the Dora Baltea, and at the junction of the Great and Little St Bernard routes. Pop. (1901) 7875. The cathedral, reconstructed in the 11th century (to which one of its campanili and some architectural details belong), was much altered in the 14th and 17th; it has a rich treasury including an ivory diptych of 406 with a representation of Honorius. The church of St Ours, founded in 425, and rebuilt in the 12th century, has good cloisters (1133); the 15th-century priory is picturesque. The castle of Bramafam (11th century) is interesting. Cretinism is common in the district.

After the fall of the Roman empire the valley of Aosta fell into the hands of the Burgundian kings; and after many changes of masters, it came under the rule of Count Humbert I. of Savoy (Biancamano) in 1032.

The privilege of holding the a.s.sembly of the states-general was granted to the inhabitants in 1189. An executive council was nominated from this body in 1536, and continued to exist until 1802. After the restoration of the rule of Savoy it was reconst.i.tuted and formally recognized by Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, at the birth of his grandson Prince Amedeo, who was created duke of Aosta. Aosta was the birthplace of Anselm. For ancient remains see AUGUSTA PRAETORIA SALa.s.sORUM.

APACHE (apparently from the Zuni name, = "enemy," given to the Navaho Indians), a tribe of North American Indians of Athapascan stock. The Apaches formerly ranged over south-eastern Arizona and south-western Mexico. The chief divisions of the Apaches were the Arivaipa, Chiricahua, Coyotero, Faraone Gileno, Llanero, Mescalero, Mimbreno, Mogollon, Naisha, Tchikun and Tchis.h.i.+. They were a powerful and warlike tribe, constantly at enmity with the whites. The final surrender of the tribe took place in 1886, when the Chiricahuas, the division involved, were deported to Florida and Alabama, where they underwent military imprisonment. The Apaches are now in reservations in Arizona, New Mexico and Oklahoma, and number between 5000 and 6000.

For details see _Handbook of American Indians_, ed. F.W. Hodge, (Was.h.i.+ngton, 1907); also INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN.

APALACHEE (apparently a Choctaw name, = "people on the other side"), a tribe of North American Indians of Muskhogean stock. They have been known since the 16th century, and formerly ranged the country around Apalachee Bay, Florida. About 1600 the Spanish Franciscans founded a successful mission among them, but early in the 18th century the tribe suffered defeat at the hands of the British, the mission churches were burnt, the priests killed, and the tribe practically annihilated, more than one thousand of them being sold as slaves.

See _Handbook of American Indians_, ed. F.W. Hodge (Was.h.i.+ngton, 1907).

APALACHICOLA, a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of Franklin county, Florida, U.S.A., in the N.W. part of the state, on Apalachicola Bay and at the mouth of the Apalachicola river. Pop. (1890) 2727; (1900) 3077, of whom 1589 were of negro descent; (1905, state census) 3244. It is served by the Apalachicola Northern railway (to Chattahoochee, Florida), and by river steamers which afford connexion with railways at Carrabelle about 25 m. distant, at Chatahoochee (or River Junction), and at Columbus and Bainbridge, Georgia, and by ocean-going vessels with American and foreign ports. The city has a monument (1900) to John Gorrie (1803-1855), a physician who discovered the cold-air process of refrigeration in 1849 (and patented an ice-machine in 1850), as the result of experiments to lower the temperatures of fever patients. The bay is well protected by St Vincent, Flag, Sand, and St George's islands; and the s.h.i.+pping of lumber, naval stores and cotton, which reach the city by way of the river, forms the princ.i.p.al industry. Before the development of railways in the Gulf states, Apalachicola was one of the princ.i.p.al centres of trade in the southern states, ranking third among the Gulf ports in 1835. In 1907 the Federal government projected a channel across the harbour bar 100 ft. wide and 10 ft. deep and a channel 150 ft. wide and 18 ft. deep for Link Channel and the West Pa.s.s.

In 1907 the exports were valued at $317,838; the imports were insignificant. The value of the total domestic and foreign commerce of the port for the year ending on the 30th of June 1907 was estimated at $1,240,000 (76,000 tons). The fishery products, including oysters, tarpon, sturgeon, caviare and sponges, are also important.

APAMEA, the name of several towns in western Asia.

1. A treasure city and stud-depot of the Seleucid kings in the valley of the Orontes. It was so named by Seleucus Nicator, after Apama, his wife.

Destroyed by Chosroes in the 7th century A.D.. it was partially rebuilt and known as _Famia_ by the Arabs; and overthrown by an earthquake in 1152. It kept its importance down to the time of the Crusades. The acropolis hill is now occupied by the ruins of Kalat el-Mudik.

See R.F. Burton and T. Drake, _Unexplored Syria_; E. Sachau, _Reise in Syrien_, 1883.