Quiet: The Power Of Introverts In A World That Can't Stop Talking Part 35

30. a "cla.s.sic Connector" named Robert Horchow: Malcolm Gladwell, The Tipping Point (New York: Back Bay Books, 2002; originally published by Little, Brown, March 2000), 4246.

31. As of May 28, 2011: Craigslist fact sheet, available on its website, www.craigslist.com (accessed May 28, 2010). Other information about Craigslist comes from (1) phone interview between Craig Newmark and the author, December 4, 2006, (2) Idelle Davidson, "The Craigslist Phenomenon," Los Angeles Times, June 13, 2004, and (3) Philip Weiss, "A Guy Named Craig," New York magazine, January 8, 2006.

32. "Guy Kawasaki an introvert?": Maria Niles, post on Blogher, a blogging community for women, August 19, 2008. See http://www.blogher.com/social-media-introverts.

33. "Wouldn't it be a great irony": Pete Cashmore, "Irony Alert: Social Media Introverts?" mashable.com, August 2008. See http://mashable.com/2008/08/15/irony-alert-social-media-introverts/.

34. introverts are more likely than extroverts: Yair Amichai-Hamburger, "Personality and the Internet," in The Social Net: Understanding Human Behavior in Cybers.p.a.ce, edited by Yair Amichai-Hamburger (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005): 2756. See also Emily S. Orr et al., "The Influence of Shyness on the Use of Facebook in an Undergraduate Sample," CyberPsychology and Behavior 12, no. 3 (2009); Levi R. Baker, "Shyness and Online Social Networking Services," Journal of Social and Personal Relations.h.i.+ps 27, no. 8 (2010). Richard N. Landers and John W. Lounsbury, "An Investigation of Big Five and Narrow Personality Traits in Relation to Internet Usage," Computers in Human Behavior 22 (2006): 28393. See also Luigi Anolli et al., "Personality of People Using Chat: An On-Line Research," CyberPsychology and Behavior 8, no. 1 (2005). But note that extroverts tend to have more Facebook friends than do introverts: Pavica Sheldon, "The Relations.h.i.+p Between Unwillingness-to-Communicate and Students' Facebook Use," Journal of Media Psychology 20, no. 2, (2008): 6775. This is unsurprising, as Facebook has come to be a place where people collect large quant.i.ties of friends.

35. an average weekly attendance of 22,000: Pastor Rick and Kay Warren, Online Newsroom, http://www.rickwarrennews.com/ (accessed September 12, 2010).

36. Contemporary evangelicalism says: For background on evangelicalism, I conducted a series of fascinating interviews with, among others, the effortlessly articulate Lauren Sandler, author of Righteous: Dispatches from the Evangelical Youth Movement (New York: Viking, 2006).

37. "cry from the heart wondering how to fit in": Mark Byron, "Evangelism for Introverts," http://markbyron.typepad.com/main/2005/06/evangalism_for_.html (accessed June 27, 2005).

38. "not serve on a parish committee": Jim Moore, "I Want to Serve the Lord-But Not Serve on a Parish Committee," http://www.beliefnet.com/Faiths/Christianity/Catholic/2000/07/I-Want-To-Serve-The-Lord-But-Not-Serve-On-A-Parish-Committee.aspx

39. "that fruitful miracle": Jean Autret, William Burford, and Phillip J. Wolfe, trans. and ed., Marcel Proust on Reading Ruskin (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989).

CHAPTER 3: WHEN COLLABORATION KILLS CREATIVITY

1. "I am a horse for a single harness": Albert Einstein, in "Forum and Century," vol. 84, pp. 19394 (the thirteenth in the Forum series Living Philosophies, a collection of personal philosophies of famous people, published in 1931).

2. "March 5, 1975": The story of Stephen Wozniak throughout this chapter is drawn largely from his autobiography, iWoz (New York: W. W. Norton, 2006). The description of Woz as being the "nerd soul" of Apple comes from http://valleywag.gawker.com/220602/wozniak-jobs-design-role-overstated.

3. a series of studies on the nature of creativity: Donald W. MacKinnon, "The Nature and Nurture of Creative Talent" (Walter Van d.y.k.e Bingham Lecture given at Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, April 11, 1962). See also MacKinnon, "Personality and the Realization of Creative Potential," Presidential Address presented at Western Psychological a.s.sociation, Portland, Oregon, April 1964.

4. One of the most interesting findings: See, for example, (1) Gregory J. Feist, "A Meta-a.n.a.lysis of Personality in Scientific and Artistic Creativity," Personality and Social Psychology Review 2, no. 4 (1998): 290309; (2) Feist, "Autonomy and Independence," Encyclopedia of Creativity, vol. 1 (San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1999), 15763; and (3) Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Creativity: Flow and the Psychology of Discovery and Invention (New York: Harper Perennial, 1996), 6568. There are some studies showing a correlation between extroversion and creativity, but in contrast to the studies by MacKinnon, Csikszentmihalyi, and Feist, which followed people whose careers had proven them to be exceptionally creative "in real life," these tend to be studies of college students measuring subjects' creativity in more casual ways, for example by a.n.a.lyzing their personal hobbies or by asking them to play creativity games like writing a story about a picture. It's likely that extroverts would do better in high-arousal settings like these. It's also possible, as the psychologist Uwe Wolfradt suggests, that the relations.h.i.+p between introversion and creativity is "discernable at a higher level of creativity only." (Uwe Wolfradt, "Individual Differences in Creativity: Personality, Story Writing, and Hobbies," European Journal of Personality 15, no. 4, [July/August 2001]: 297310.)

5. Hans Eysenck: Hans J. Eysenck, Genius: The Natural History of Creativity (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995).

6. "Innovation-the heart of the knowledge economy": Malcolm Gladwell, "Why Your Bosses Want to Turn Your New Office into Greenwich Village," The New Yorker, December 11, 2000.

7. "None of us is as smart as all of us": Warren Bennis, Organizing Genius: The Secrets of Creative Collaboration (New York: Basic Books, 1997).

8. "Michelangelo had a.s.sistants": Clay s.h.i.+rky, Here Comes Everybody: The Power of Organizing Without Organizations (New York: Penguin, 2008).

9. organize workforces into teams: Steve Koslowski and Daniel Ilgen, "Enhancing the Effectiveness of Work Groups and Teams," Psychological Science in the Public Interest 7, no. 3 (2006): 77124.

10. By 2000 an estimated half: Dennis J. Devine, "Teams in Organizations: Prevalence, Characteristics, and Effectiveness," Small Group Research 20 (1999): 678711.

11. today virtually all of them do: Frederick Morgeson et al., "Leaders.h.i.+p in Teams: A Functional Approach to Understanding Leaders.h.i.+p Structures and Processes," Journal of Management 36, no. 1 (2010): 539.

12. 91 percent of high-level managers: Ibid.

13. The consultant Stephen Harvill told me: Author interview, October 26, 2010.

14. over 70 percent of today's employees: Davis, "The Physical Environment of the Office." See also James C. McElroy and Paula C. Morrow, "Employee Reactions to Office Redesign: A Naturally Occurring Quasi-Field Experiment in a Multi-Generational Setting," Human Relations 63, no. 5 (2010): 60936. See also Davis, "The Physical Environment of the Office": open-plan offices are "the most popular office design" today. See also Joyce Gannon, "Firms Betting Open-Office Design, Amenities Lead to Happier, More Productive Workers," Post-Gazette (Pittsburgh), February 9, 2003. See also Stephen Beacham, Real Estate Weekly, July 6, 2005. The first company to use an open plan in a high-rise building was Owens Corning, in 1969. Today, many companies use them, including Proctor & Gamble, Ernst & Young, GlaxoSmithKline, Alcoa, and H. J. Heinz. http://www.owenscorning.com/acquainted/about/history/1960.asp. See also Matthew Davis et al., "The Physical Environment of the Office: Contemporary and Emerging Issues," in G. P. Hodgkinson and J. K. Ford, eds., International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, vol. 26 (Chichester, UK: Wiley, 2011), 193235: "... there was a 'widespread introduction of open-plan and landscaped offices in North America in the 1960s and 1970s.' " But see Jennifer Ann McCusker, "Individuals and Open s.p.a.ce Office Design: The Relations.h.i.+p Between Personality and Satisfaction in an Open s.p.a.ce Work Environment," dissertation, Organizational Studies, Alliant International University, April 12, 2002 ("the concept of open s.p.a.ce design began in the mid 1960s with a group of German management consultants," citing Karen A. Edelman, "Take Down the Walls," Across the Board 34, no. 3 [1997]: 3238).

15. The amount of s.p.a.ce per employee shrank: Roger Vincent, "Office Walls Are Closing in on Corporate Workers," Los Angeles Times, December 15, 2010.

16. "There has been a s.h.i.+ft from 'I' to 'we' work": Paul B. Brown, "The Case for Design," Fast Company, June 2005.

17. Rival office manufacturer Herman Miller, Inc.: "New Executive Office-scapes: Moving from Private Offices to Open Environments," Herman Miller Inc., 2003.

18. In 2006, the Ross School of Business: Dave Gershman, "Building Is 'Heart and Soul' of the Ross School of Business," mlive.com, January 24, 2009. See also Kyle Swanson, "Business School Offers Preview of New Home, Slated to Open Next Semester," Michigan Daily, September 15, 2008.

19. According to a 2002 nationwide survey: Christopher Barnes, "What Do Teachers Teach? A Survey of America's Fourth and Eighth Grade Teachers," conducted by the Center for Survey Research and a.n.a.lysis, University of Connecticut, Civic Report no. 28, September 2002. See also Robert E. Slavin, "Research on Cooperative Learning and Achievement: What We Know, What We Need to Know," Contemporary Educational Psychology 21, no. 1 (1996): 4369 (citing 1993 national survey findings that 79 percent of elementary school teachers and 62 percent of middle school teachers made sustained use of cooperative learning). Note that in "real life," many teachers are simply throwing students into groups but not using "cooperative learning" per se, which involves a highly specific set of procedures, according to an e-mail sent to the author by Roger Johnson of the Cooperative Learning Center at the University of Minnesota.

20. "Cooperative learning": Bruce Williams, Cooperative Learning: A Standard for High Achievement (Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin, 2004), 34.

21. Janet Farrall and Leonie Kronborg: Janet Farrall and Leonie Kronborg, "Leaders.h.i.+p Development for the Gifted and Talented," in Fusing Talent-Giftedness in Australian Schools, edited by M. McCann and F. Southern (Adelaide: The Australian a.s.sociation of Mathematics Teachers, 1996).

22. "Employees are putting their whole lives up": Radio interview with Kai Ryssdal, "Are Cubicles Going Extinct?", Marketplace, from American Public Media, December 15, 2010.

23. A significant majority of the earliest computer enthusiasts: Sarah Holmes and Philip L. Kerr, "The IT Crowd: The Type Distribution in a Group of Information Technology Graduates," Australian Psychological Type Review 9, no. 1 (2007): 3138. See also Yair Amichai-Hamburger et al., " 'On the Internet No One Knows I'm an Introvert': Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Internet Interaction," CyberPsychology and Behavior 5, no. 2 (2002): 12528.

24. "It's a truism in tech": Dave W. Smith, e-mail to the author, October 20, 2010.

25. "Why could that boy, whom I had beaten so easily": See Daniel Coyle, The Talent Code (New York: Bantam Dell, 2009), 48.

26. three groups of expert violinists: K. Anders Ericsson et al., "The Role of Deliberate Practice in the Acquisition of Expert Performance," Psychological Review 100, no. 3 (1993): 363406.

27. "Serious study alone": Neil Charness et al., "The Role of Deliberate Practice in Chess Expertise," Applied Cognitive Psychology 19 (2005): 15165.

28. College students who tend to study alone: David Glenn, "New Book Lays Failure to Learn on Colleges' Doorsteps," The Chronicle of Higher Education, January 18, 2001.

29. Even elite athletes in team sports: Starkes and Ericsson, "Expert Performance in Sports: Advances in Research on Sports Expertise," Human Kinetics (2003): 6771.

30. In many fields, Ericsson told me: Interview with the author, April 13, 2010.

31. ten thousand hours of Deliberate Practice: By the age of eighteen, the best violinists in the Berlin Music Academy study had spent an average of over 7,000 hours practicing alone, about 2,000 hours more than the good violinists, and 4,000 hours more than the music teachers.

32. "intense curiosity or focused interest seems odd to their peers": Csikszentmihalyi, Creativity, 177.

33. "because practicing music or studying math": Ibid., 65.

34. Madeleine L'Engle: Ibid., 25354.

35. "My dear Mr. Babbage": Charles Darwin, The Correspondence of Charles Darwin Volume 2: 18371843 (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 67.

36. the Coding War Games: These are described in Tom DeMarco and Timothy Lister, Peopleware: Productive Projects and Teams (New York: Dorset House, 1987).

37. A mountain of recent data on open-plan offices: See, for example, the following: (1) Vinesh Oommen et al., "Should Health Service Managers Embrace Open Plan Work Environments? A Review," Asia Pacific Journal of Health Management 3, no. 2 (2008). (2) Aoife Brennan et al., "Traditional Versus Open Office Design: A Longitudinal Field Study," Environment and Behavior 34 (2002): 279. (3) James C McElroy and Paula Morrow, "Employee Reactions to Office Redesign: A Naturally Occurring Quasi-Field Experiment in a Multi-Generational Setting," Human Relations 63 (2010): 609. (4) Einar De Croon et al., "The Effect of Office Concepts on Worker Health and Performance: A Systematic Review of the Literature," Ergonomics, 48, no. 2 (2005): 11934. (5) J. Pejtersen et al., "Indoor Climate, Psychosocial Work Environment and Symptoms in Open-Plan Offices," Indoor Air 16, no. 5 (2006): 392401. (6) Herman Miller Research Summary, 2007, "It's All About Me: The Benefits of Personal Control at Work." (7) Paul Bell et al., Environmental Psychology (Lawrence Erlbaum, 2005), 162. (8) Davis, "The Physical Environment of the Office."