The Measurement of Intelligence Part 23

Sometimes the child gives one or two numbers and then stops, having completely lost the rest of the series in the stress of adjusting to the novel and relatively difficult task of beginning with the final digit.

In such cases the feeble-minded are p.r.o.ne to fill in with any numbers they may happen to think of. A good method for the subject is to break the series up into groups and to give each group separately. Thus, 6-5-2-8 is given 8-2 (pause) 5-6. As a rule only the more intelligent subjects adopt this method. One 12-year-old girl attending high school was able to repeat eight digits backwards by the aid of this device.

It would be well worth while to investigate the relation of this test to imagery type. Such a study would have to make use of adult subjects trained in introspection. It would seem that success might be favored by the ability to translate the auditory impression into visual imagery, so that the remembered numbers could be read off as from a book; but this may or may not be the case. At any rate, success seems to depend largely upon the ability to manipulate mental imagery.

The degree of certainty as to the correctness of the response is usually much less than in repeating digits forwards.

CHAPTER XIV

INSTRUCTIONS FOR YEAR VIII

VIII, 1. THE BALL-AND-FIELD TEST (SCORE 2, INFERIOR PLAN)

PROCEDURE. Draw a circle about two and one half inches in diameter, leaving a small gap in the side next the child. Say: "_Let us suppose that your baseball has been lost in this round field. You have no idea what part of the field it is in. You don't know what direction it came from, how it got there, or with what force it came. All you know is that the ball is lost somewhere in the field. Now, take this pencil and mark out a path to show me how you would hunt for the ball so as to be sure not to miss it. Begin at the gate and show me what path you would take._"[56]

[56] The Stanford record booklet contains the circle ready for use.

Give the instructions always as worded above. Avoid using an expression like, "_Show me how you would walk around in the field_"; the word _around_ might suggest a circular path.

Sometimes the child merely points or tells how he would go. It is then necessary to say: "_No; you must mark out your path with the pencil so I can see it plainly._" Other children trace a path only a little way and stop, saying: "Here it is." We then say: "_But suppose you have not found it yet. Which direction would you go next?_" In this way the child must be kept tracing a path until it is evident whether any plan governs his procedure.

SCORING. The performances secured with this test are conveniently cla.s.sified into four groups, representing progressively higher types.

The first two types represent failures; the third is satisfactory at year VIII, the fourth at year XII. They may be described as follows:--

_Type a_ (failure). The child fails to comprehend the instructions and either does nothing at all or else, perhaps, takes the pencil and makes a few random strokes which could not be said to const.i.tute a search.

_Type b_ (also failure). The child comprehends the instructions and carries out a search, but without any definite plan. Absence of plan is evidenced by the crossing and re-crossing of paths, or by "breaks." A break means that the pencil is lifted up and set down in another part of the field. Sometimes only two or three fragments of paths are drawn, but more usually the field is pretty well filled up with random meanderings which cross each other again and again. Other ill.u.s.trations of type _b_ are: A single straight or curved line going direct to the ball, short haphazard dashes or curves, bare suggestion of a fan or spiral.

_Type c_ (satisfactory at year VIII). A successful performance at year VIII is characterized by the presence of a plan, but one ill-adapted to the purpose. That some forethought is exercised is evidenced, (1) by fewer crossings, (2) by a tendency either to make the lines more or less parallel or else to give them some kind of symmetry, and (3) by fewer breaks. The possibilities of type _c_ are almost unlimited, and one is continually meeting new forms. We have distinguished more than twenty of these, the most common of which may be described as follows:--

1. Very rough or zigzag circles or similarly imperfect spirals.

2. Segments of curves joined in a more or less symmetrical fas.h.i.+on.

3. Lines going back and forth across the field, joined at the ends and not intended to be parallel.

4. The "wheel plan," showing lines radiating from near the center of the field toward the circ.u.mference.

5. The "fan plan," showing a number of lines radiating (usually) from the gate and spreading out over the field.

6. "Fan ellipses" or "fan spirals" radiating from the gate like the lines just described.

7. The "leaf plan," "rib plan," or "tree plan," with lines branching off from a trunk line like ribs, veins of a leaf, or branches of a tree.

8. Parallel lines which cross at right angles and mark off the field like a checkerboard.

9. Paths making one or more fairly symmetrical geometrical figures, like a square, a diamond, a star, a hexagon, etc.

10. A combination of two or more of the above plans.

_Type d_ (satisfactory at year XII). Performances of this type meet perfectly, or almost perfectly, the logical requirements of the problem. The paths are almost or quite parallel, and there are no intersections or breaks. The possibilities of type _d_ are fewer and embrace chiefly the following:--

1. A spiral, perfect or almost perfect, and beginning either at the gate or at the center of the field. 2. Concentric circles.

3. Transverse lines, parallel or almost so, and joined at the ends.

Up to about 4 years most children failed entirely to comprehend the task. By the age of 6 years the task is usually understood, but the search is conducted without plan. Type _c_ is not attained by two thirds before the mental level of 8 years, and score 3 ordinarily not until 11 or 12 years.

Grading presents some difficulties because of occasional border-line performances which have a value almost midway between the types _b_ and _c_ or between _c_ and _d_. Frequent reference to the scoring card will enable the examiner, after a little experience, to score nearly all the doubtful performances satisfactorily.

REMARKS. The ball-and-field problem may be called a test of practical judgment. Unlike a majority of the other tests, it gives the subject a chance to show how well he can meet the demands of a real, rather than an imagined, situation. Tests like this, involving practical adjustments, are valuable in rounding out the scale, which, as left by Binet, placed rather excessive emphasis on abstract reasoning and the comprehension of language. The test requires little time and always arouses the child's interest.

Our a.n.a.lysis of the responses of nearly 1500 subjects shows that improvement with increasing mental age is steady and fairly rapid.

Occasionally, however, one meets a high-grade performance with children of 6 or 7 years, and a low-grade performance with adults of average intelligence. Like all the other tests of the scale, it is unreliable when used alone.

VIII, 2. COUNTING BACKWARDS FROM 20 TO 1

PROCEDURE. Say to the child: "_You can count backwards, can you not? I want you to count backwards for me from 20 to 1. Go ahead._" In the great majority of cases this is sufficient; the child comprehends the task and begins. If he does not comprehend, and is silent, or starts in, perhaps, to count forwards from 1 or 20, say: "_No; I want you to count backwards from 20 to 1, like this: 20-19-18, and clear on down to 1.

Now, go ahead._"

Insist upon the child trying it even though he a.s.serts he cannot do it.

In many such cases an effort is crowned with success. Say nothing about hurrying, as this confuses some subjects. Prompting is not permissible.

SCORING. The test is pa.s.sed if the child counts from 20 to 1 _in not over forty seconds and with not more than a single error_ (one omission or one transposition). Errors which the child spontaneously corrects are not counted as errors.

REMARKS. The statistics on this test agree remarkably well. It is plainly too easy for year IX, and no one has found it easy enough for year VII. The main lack of uniformity has been in the adherence to a time limit. Binet required that the task be completed in twenty seconds, and G.o.ddard and most others adhere rather strictly to this rule.

Kuhlmann, however, allows thirty seconds if there is no error and twenty seconds if one error is committed. We agree with Bobertag that owing to the nature of this test we should not be pedantic about the time. While a majority of children who are able to count backwards do the task in twenty seconds, there are some intelligent but deliberate subjects who require as much as thirty-five or forty seconds. If the counting is done with a.s.surance and without stumbling, there is no reason why we should not allow even forty seconds. Beyond this, however, our generosity should not go, because of the chance it would give for the use of special devices such as counting forwards each time to the next number wanted.

It may be said that counting backwards is a test of schooling, and to a certain extent this is true. It is reasonable to suppose that special training would enable the child to pa.s.s the test a little earlier than he would otherwise be able to do, though it is doubtful whether many children below 7 years of age have had enough of such training to influence the performance very materially. On the other hand, when the child has reached an intelligence level of 8 or at most 9 years, he is ordinarily able to count from 20 to 1 whether he has ever tried it before or not.

What psychological factors are involved in this test? It presupposes, in the first place, the ability to count from 1 to 20. But this alone does not guarantee success in counting backwards. Something more is required than a mere rote memory for the number names in their order from 1 up to 20. The quant.i.tative relations.h.i.+ps of the numbers must also be apprehended if the task is to be performed smoothly without a great deal of special training. In addition to being reasonably secure in his knowledge of the number relations.h.i.+ps involved, the child must be able to give sustained attention until the task is completed. His mental processes must be dominated by the guiding idea, "count backwards."

a.s.sociations which do not harmonize with this aim, or which fail to further it, must be inhibited. Even momentary relaxation of attention means a loss of directive force in the guiding idea and the dominance of better known a.s.sociations which may be suggested by the task, but are out of harmony with it. Thus, if a child momentarily loses sight of the end after counting backwards successfully from 20 to 14, he is likely to be overpowered by the law of habit and begin counting forwards, 14-15-16-17, etc. We may regard the test, therefore, as a test of attention, or prolonged thought control. The ability to exercise unbroken vigilance for a period of twenty or thirty seconds is rarely found below the level of 7- or 8-year intelligence.

VIII, 3. COMPREHENSION, THIRD DEGREE

The questions for this year are:--

(a) "_What's the thing for you to do when you have broken something which belongs to some one else?_"

(b) "_What's the thing for you to do when you notice on your way to school that you are in danger of being tardy?_"

(c) "_What's the thing for you to do if a playmate hits you without meaning to do it?_"

The procedure is the same as in previous comprehension questions.[57]

Each question may be repeated once or twice, but its form must not be changed. No explanations are permissible.

[57] See IV, 5, and VI, 4.

SCORING:--

_Question a (If you have broken something)_

_Satisfactory responses_ are those suggesting either rest.i.tution or apology, or both. Confession is not satisfactory unless accompanied by apology. The following are satisfactory: "Buy a new one." "Pay for it." "Give them something instead of it."

"Have my father mend it." "Apologize." "Tell them I'm sorry, that I did not mean to break it," etc. Of 92 correct answers, 76 suggested rest.i.tution, while 16 suggested apology, or apology and rest.i.tution.

_Unsatisfactory._ "Tell them I did it." "Go tell my mother."