My Gita Part 7

Am I aware of my fears that make me greedy, stingy and controlling? What stops me from being generous materially, emotionally and intellectually? Liberation, essentially, is letting go of our insecurities that disconnect us from others.

You and I matter to each other Generosity presupposes the other. Monastic traditions focus on isolating the self from the other. The Gita, however, is the doctrine of the householder, not the hermit, the one who does not withdraw from the battlefield but fights without attachment or hatred, and so is neither violated nor violates. So while Buddhism speaks of anatta (absence of atma) and nirvana (oblivion of self), The Gita speaks of atma-rati, the joy of the immortal within, and brahma-nirvana, discovery of the other. This relations.h.i.+p between the self (jiva-atma) and the other (param-atma) forms the theme of this, our final chapter. Krishna introduces this idea early on in The Gita, as samadhi, in Chapter 2.

The Gita ends twice. First, with Krishna concluding his discourse.

Arjuna, thus have I pa.s.sed on the most secrets of secrets. Reflect on it and do as you wish. If you trust me completely and forsake all other paths, know that I will liberate you. Do not share this knowledge with the cynical, disdainful or disinterested. Those who share my words, I adore. Those who hear my words, even without understanding, are blessed with joy. I hope you have focussed on what I said. I hope this knowledge has shattered all delusion.-Bhagavad Gita: Chapter 18, verses 63 to 72 (paraphrased).

Arjuna confirms that his delusion is shattered and perspective has been replaced by focus. He stands firm, with clear resolve and no doubts, ready to do as told.

Sanjaya then concludes The Gita once again, expressing his grat.i.tude towards Vyasa for giving him the telepathic sight that enabled him to hear Krishna's wise words and see Krishna's magnificent form. Finally, in the last paragraph of The Gita, he gives his personal take on Krishna's discourse.

Where Krishna yokes the mind and Arjuna bears the bow, there is always fortune, success, dominion, stability, and law. That is my opinion.-Bhagavad Gita: Chapter 18, Verse 78 (paraphrased).

The difference between the two conclusions is stark. Krishna's conclusion is rather psychological. Sanjaya's conclusion is very material. Krishna offers Arjuna liberation from worldly fetters (moksha) if Arjuna demonstrates faith in him by performing his role as a warrior, for the benefit of others, without any expectation of reward. Sanjaya believes Krishna's discourse holds five promises: fortune (shri), success (vijaya), dominion (bhu), stability (dhruva) and law (niti).

Arjuna's problem concerned only him, but Krishna's solution made him consider the other. Sanjaya is the other: the embodiment of the people of Hastinapur, who are overlooked in the war between the Pandavas and the Kauravas. For Sanjaya, The Gita is clearly a discourse meant for kings, who are expected to rule, take responsibility for their subjects and usher in peace and prosperity, rather than fight wars in self-indulgence. It is Sanjaya's appeal to Dhritarashtra to listen to The Gita and outgrow his own victimhood, that blinds him to the plight of others.

Arjuna, whatever a n.o.ble person does, the world follows. -Bhagavad Gita: Chapter 3, Verse 21 (paraphrased).

Sanjaya's conclusion connects The Gita to Vaishnava mythology, for Shri and Bhu are proper nouns, referring to the two consorts of Vishnu, who is also known as Vijaya, the victorious one. Vishnu is visualized as the king of the universe, dressed in regal attire, attended by his queens: Shri, who embodies intangible fortunes such as sovereignty, glory, fame and charisma; and Bhu, who embodies tangible fortune like the earth and its treasures. Dhruva and Niti are Vishnu's devotees. Dhruva embodies the Pole Star, a child who wants to sit on Vishnu's lap, the only seat from which no one can pull him down, so that he can enjoy forever the affection of his divine father. Niti means law, that is of value only when it submits to the idea of Vishnu, which is dharma. With dharma, law will help the helpless and provide justice (nyaya) to all. Without dharma, law will be a tool for control, oppression and even sabotage.

We must remind ourselves of the period when the Ramayana and the Mahabharata came to be written. It was a time when kins.h.i.+p was giving way to kings.h.i.+p, meaning that communities included not just members of the same extended family or tribe (kin), but also members of other families, tribes and clans. Thus, the Ramayana is the story of the descendants of Ikshvaku engaging with outsiders-va-naras and rakshasas, who follow the jungle way. The Mahabharata is the story of tension within the Kuru clan itself, between two branches of the same family. The central issue in both epics is property: the thrones of Ayodhya, Kishkinda and Lanka in the Ramayana and the throne of Hastinapur in the Mahabharata. A good king was supposed to be one who took care of those he called his own (mama) as well as the rest (para). Ram is considered the greatest king, as he was more concerned about his kingdom and his family's reputation than his personal happiness. Krishna is considered the greatest kingmaker, as he shows the Pandavas that war is not about vengeance or ambition, it is about governance.

Arjuna, there is nothing in the three worlds that I need to do or gain. Yet I work, for if I don't, others won't, and I will be the cause of confusion and destruction of all that has been created.-Bhagavad Gita: Chapter 3, verses 22 to 24 (paraphrased).

Vishnu reclines on the coils of a serpent. The image of a man seated under the hood of a serpent was typically used to depict leaders of monastic movements, such as the Buddha, for example, and the Jain tirthankara Parsva-nath. By making Vishnu occupy the same seat, the Puranas were communicating the message that a great man did not have to be a monk; he could also be king. The Gita is Vedic wisdom customized to the needs of king and kingdom. The kingdom needs the king but the king also needs the kingdom.

Under the Serpent Hood The Gita introduces a subtle tension between the concepts of dharma and moksha. Dharma demands social engagement, while moksha is about social disengagement. Dharma is about building relations.h.i.+ps. Moksha is about abandoning relations.h.i.+ps. Dharma binds people to society. Moskha enables them to break free. In Vedic times, dharma was seen as appropriate for the youth, while moksha was seen as appropriate for the old, until followers of Buddhism and Jainism popularized the hermit culture and made it part of the mainstream, 2,500 years ago. In Vedic Hinduism, dharma is valued over moksha. But in Puranic Hinduism, moksha starts being valued over dharma, indicating the growing influence of Hindu monastic orders for the past 1,000 years.

Inclusion of Moksha Today we tend to see moksha as aspirational, almost the goal of Hindu life. But the concept of 'goal' makes sense only in one-life cultures, where existence has an expiry date. In rebirth cultures there are no expiry dates, hence no goals, only pursuits that make our endless life meaningful (purusha-artha). Originally three categories (tri-varga) of pursuit were identified: dharma, artha and kama, or social obligations, power and pleasure. Later, moksha was included as the fourth category (chatur-varga). A judge finds moksha to be the best of the three, while an observer is able to see the contextual appropriateness of each varga. While artha, kama and moksha focus primarily on the self, dharma alone is about the other. This is why Krishna keeps speaking about action, not inaction, engagement, not withdrawal.

Arjuna, when doing your duties, surrender yourself to me, offer all actions to be, and demonstrate equanimity no matter what the reaction-you will be liberated and at peace. Fix your mind on me and you will overcome all obstacles. Rely on your conceit and you will perish.-Bhagavad Gita: Chapter 18, verses 56 to 58 (paraphrased).

In Buddhist mythology, Siddhartha Gautama walks away from wife, child, father and kingdom, and goes into the forest to solve the problem of suffering. In the forest he encounters and defeats Mara, the demon of desire, to become the Buddha. In Hindu mythology, Mara is Kama, G.o.d of desire, and he is a friend of Indra, king of the devas. In Indra's abode, Amaravati, all desires are indulged. That is why it is called swarga, which means 'paradise'.

But Indra is insecure and restless; he fears that all his treasures will be taken away. He has no faith. No temples are built for Indra. Temples are built for s.h.i.+va instead, who opens his third eye and burns Kama to a heap of ash. s.h.i.+va's abode, Kailasa, is a mountain of stone covered with ice. Nothing grows here. Nothing can survive here. But it does not matter, for in s.h.i.+va's abode there is no desire, no hunger, hence no need for food.

In s.h.i.+va temples, s.h.i.+va is always a.s.sociated with Shakti, the G.o.ddess. She manifests as the trough (yoni) in which the solitary stone pillar (lingam) representing s.h.i.+va is made to stand. s.h.i.+va may withdraw from the world as a hermit, but she binds him to the earth, transforms him into a householder and makes him descend from the lofty inhospitable icy peaks of Kailasa to the riverside city of Kas.h.i.+, full of markets and crematoriums. Here, the G.o.ddess makes him aware of, and attentive to, the desires, hungers and fears of those who are not as resourceful, capable and accomplished as he. The self is made to empathize with the inadequacies of the other and feel love, not disdain. She is Kamaks.h.i.+, whose eyes evoke desire. Through her desire is reborn, but located in the other. She is Paramita, the one who completes the self through the other (para/param). She is Annapoorna, who provides food for all, and he becomes Bhikshatan, the beggar, who begs for others. They create two children: the corpulent elephant-headed Ganesha and the mighty lance-bearing Kartikeya, embodiments of s.h.i.+va's grace as he acknowledges the human struggle with meaning and validation.

When Siddhartha Gautama finally returns from the forest, he is an enlightened teacher, not a wise husband, father, son or king. His wisdom causes detachment. In other words he returns, but does not reconnect. But in Hindu epics, return from the forest is always about reconnection. In the Ramayana, palace intrigues force Ram to go to the forest, where he discovers, and rejects, the ways of the jungle and returns to be a great king. In the Mahabharata, the Pandavas are born in the forest, and they return to the forest for the first time when their lives are threatened by the Kauravas, the second time after they gamble away their fortune and the third time after having ruled Hastinapur successfully for a very long time. With each return, they are wiser in the ways of society. While the forest teaches the Buddha to disconnect from all relations.h.i.+ps, it enables the protagonists of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata to connect and be better at relations.h.i.+ps.

Return of the Buddha, Ram and the Pandavas from the Forest In Patanjali's Yoga-sutra, there are eight steps, which involve gradual withdrawal from society through the body, breath, senses and mind towards the atma. The final step is called samadhi, and is said to be a union with the infinite. For a hermit, samadhi refers to the ability to voluntarily leave his physical body and merge with the infinite. For the householder, it means something else. And the clue lies in the structure of the word itself.

The word 'samadhi' is based on two words: 'sama' that means the first beat of the musical cycle in Hindustani cla.s.sical music and 'adi' that means primal origin. The hermit's journey begins by withdrawing from the other. The householder's journey ends by returning to the other. It is the return to the first beat. It is the return to the primal origin. It is about returning from the forest liberated (moksha) to reconnect (yoga) with those we left behind, those who are very different from us (brahma-nirvana).

The hermit may seek zero (shunya), hence withdrawal and oblivion (nirvana). But the householder can seek infinity (ananta), hence partic.i.p.ation, which leads to expansion of the mind to accommodate the infinite truths of those around (brahma-nirvana). Krishna thus makes moksha an outcome of dharma.

Arjuna, he who is at peace with himself, happy with himself, illuminated by the knowledge of the resident within all beings, finds supreme bliss everywhere. He does not see himself as separate and disconnected and finds happiness in the happiness of all creatures. This state of being exists everywhere for the wise one who has outgrown desire and rage.-Bhagavad Gita: Chapter 5, verses 24 to 26 (paraphrased).

Return to the Origin If Indra's heaven, swarga, is about indulging desires, hungers and fears, and s.h.i.+va's heaven, Kailasa, is about outgrowing desires, hungers and fears, then Vishnu's heaven, Vaikuntha, is about outgrowing desires, hungers and fears of the self by gaining perspective on the desires, hungers and fears of others.

Vaikuntha is located on the sh.o.r.e-less ocean of milk. This ocean of milk is a metaphor for nature (prakriti), its sh.o.r.e-less state indicating that it has no purpose or destination, and milk indicating that all wealth is ultimately churned out of nature. Here Vishnu lies in deep slumber until the cries of the earth G.o.ddess wake him up and force him to watch the rise and fall of human societies, the alternating victories and defeats of the devas and the asuras who seek control over the world. Vishnu descends in various moral forms (avatars) to help everyone appreciate the reality of nature (prakriti) and the potential of humanity (purusha).

Besides being a saviour, Vishnu is also an enjoyer (rasika) of the various flavours (rasa) of existence. His temples contain dancing halls (natya-mandapa), food halls (bhoga-mandapa), a.s.sembly halls (jaga-mohana) and wedding halls (kalyana-mandapa). They are a.s.sociated with fine music, fragrances and garments.

Unlike the independent s.h.i.+va made dependable by Shakti, Vishnu displays vulnerability and dependence on the other when he descends as Ram and Krishna, for the other also wants to feel powerful and valued, and this can only happen when the self 'consumes' the other. I want you to need me. If you do not need me, and only give me, without taking anything from me, I feel inadequate, meaningless, valueless and purposeless. In wanting me, you illuminate me and contribute to my fulfilment. Likewise, you want me to need you. If I do not need you, if I am dependable but detached, you will feel insulted, hurt, unwanted, and I will appear patronizing.

Brahma Vishnu stories in the Ramayana, Bhagavata and Mahabharata reveal how he experiences birth, death and even heartbreak. Both Ram and Krishna display human emotions, yearning for the beloved. Though G.o.d, Ram cannot be with Sita, Krishna cannot be with Radha. Yet they do not turn bitter, angry or vengeful. They love unconditionally.

This idea of a vulnerable G.o.d, who gets as much as he gives, is unique to Hinduism. While the transformation of the wise Buddha of old Buddhism into the compa.s.sionate Bodhisattva of later Buddhism mirrors the transformation of the hermit s.h.i.+va into the householder Shankara, the idea of Vishnu, who is at once king and hermit and lover, who not only cares for but needs the other, is unique to Vaishnava mythology.

Hermit to Householder Neither Sita, who Vishnu abandons as Ram, nor Radha, who he abandons as Krishna, begrudges him. They also love him unconditionally. Love, in either case, does not guarantee happiness. Love, in either case, does not manifest as control. Loving is its own reward, the ultimate human possibility. This is atma-rati, feeling fulfilled in doing the deed without expecting a reward, referred to in Chapter 3, Verse 7. This is the outcome of brahma-sthithi, being firm in the understanding of human imagination, referred to in Chapter 2, Verse 72. It follows accepting oneself as nimitta-matra, instrument of a larger narrative, referred to in Chapter 11, Verse 33.

Swarga, Kailasa, Vaikuntha Buddhism popularized the hermit practice of shutting the eyes and contemplating (dhyana) while Puranic Hinduism popularized the householder practice of opening the eyes and seeing the deity in the temple (darshan). In one, there is focus on the inner journey. In the other, the inner journey is meant to facilitate the outer journey.

The Buddhist concept of nirvana offers freedom from suffering by realizing that even the idea of the self is manufactured by the mind. The Gita's concept of brahma-nirvana offers awareness of, and empathy for, the manufactured anxieties of the other, their need to control and dominate and cling, their inability to let go despite being enabled and empowered to do so. The more we observe the other, without judgement, the more we see ourselves mirrored in them. We realize our manufactured anxieties that indulge our manufactured selves.

Arjuna, he who is always aware of the divine, and unites with the divine, within and without, will always be at peace and blissful.-Bhagavad Gita: Chapter 6, Verse 15 (paraphrased).

Typically, we are trapped in a world where there is conflict between my kshetra and your kshetra. I compare what I have with what you have and this leads to conflict and compet.i.tion as between the Pandavas and the Kauravas. Darshan begins when I look at your aham, the hungers and fears that const.i.tute your imagined ident.i.ty, and discover my aham, fears and hungers that const.i.tute my imagined ident.i.ty. This is what Krishna asks Arjuna to do. Only then do we discover the atma that permeates all beings and all things, that is infinite, immortal and at peace.

The Journey of The Gita In other words, darshan of the other leads to darshan of the self. Darshan without leads to darshan within. This is atma-gyana, self-awareness that enables us to accept, maybe even outgrow, our own anxieties and be kinder to ourselves, and others, even in a fight.

This is the promise of The Gita, revealed through me to you.

Can you and I partic.i.p.ate in a relations.h.i.+p without seeking to control the behaviour of the other? Can we help each other outgrow our hungers and fears? Then we are on the path of brahma-nirvana. When we derive joy from within, not from achievements outside, we are on the path of atma-rati.

After My Gita: Yet Another Discourse by Krishna

After The Gita, there was the Kama Gita, the song of the G.o.d of desire, and then the Anu Gita, the follow-up Gita, both narrated by Krishna. This is how they come about.

Kama Gita As he concludes the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna asks Arjuna if he has heard what has been said and if he is free of confusion. Yes, says Arjuna.

Krishna, by your grace, I am no longer deluded or confused. I remember what I am supposed to do. I am firm. I have no doubts. I shall do as you say.-Bhagavad Gita: Chapter 18, Verse 73 (paraphrased).

Arjuna then blows his conch sh.e.l.l, announcing the start of the war, and lets Krishna take him into battle. Krishna's perspective brings back Arjuna's focus; confusion is replaced by clarity, paralysis with action. All is well that ends well.

At least, so we think.

But as the days of the war progress, Arjuna shows repeated moments of doubt, despair and dilemma. He is unable to bring himself to kill Bhisma who is like a father to him, Drona who is his teacher and Karna who stands before him unarmed, despite Krishna goading him on to do so.

After the war too, doubts persist.

In Ashwamedika Parva, Book 14 of the Mahabharata, Arjuna overhears Krishna present the very short Kama Gita to his eldest brother: 'Yudhishthira, hear what Kama, G.o.d of craving, says about himself. He who seeks to destroy craving with weapons ends up craving those very weapons. He who seeks to destroy craving with charity ends up craving charity. He who seeks to destroy craving with scriptures ends up craving scriptures. He who seeks to destroy craving with truth ends up craving truth. He who seeks to destroy craving with austerities ends up craving austerities. He who seeks to destroy craving with renunciation ends up craving renunciation. Craving cannot be destroyed, but it can be put to good use by locating it in dharma. So seek to destroy craving with the pursuit of dharma. You will ends up craving dharma! And that will be good for the whole world, for you will then conduct more and more exchange, bring prosperity to the world, liberating yourself in the process from all obligations, enabling others to give without expectations.'

Arjuna then approaches Krishna, just when he is about to leave for Dwaraka, with a request to repeat what he had said at the start of the war. 'Really!' replies Krishna, surprised, even a little irritated, by the request. 'You want me to recollect all that I had said then? That was a tense and inspired moment. I was in a state of full awareness, fully connected with the world and my faculties. That moment has pa.s.sed.'

But still Krishna presents the Anu Gita, or the follow-up Gita, which is also located in Ashwamedika Parva, Book 14 of the Mahabharata. The knowledge provided in the Anu Gita is secondary. Krishna recalls three conversations: the first one between a sage called Kashyapa and a learned Brahmin, the second one between the Brahmin and his wife and the third one between the Brahmin and his student. The conversation is long: thirty-six chapters, double that of the Bhagavad Gita, and far less lucid. Here, the quest for wisdom is described as journeying from one forest of metaphors to another. As in the Vyadha Gita and the Bhagavad Gita, reference is made to the wise King Janaka of Mithila, who was seen as the champion of the Upanishads, Sita's father in the Ramayana. When this discourse ends, Krishna hopes that by sharing these three conversations of ancient sages, Arjuna has regained his knowledge of the Bhagavad Gita. Then he leaves.

As in most other Gitas, the Anu Gita elaborates on karma and gyana, not bhakti. Perhaps Arjuna's emotional breakdown on the battlefield created the need for an innovation: an emotional anchor, faith in someone outside, someone bigger than everyone and everything around, someone who supports and cares unconditionally. In other words, G.o.d! Krishna does not present himself as bhagavan in the Anu Gita, though Arjuna does identify and venerate Krishna as bhagavan in the final chapter of the Anu Gita, as the two ride out to Dwaraka.

As the Mahabharata draws to a close, we are told that Arjuna, recipient of multiple discourses of Vedic wisdom from Krishna himself, lands up in h.e.l.l (naraka) after his death, because of demerits acc.u.mulated owing to his insecurity and arrogance. He has to stay there until he is cleansed and only then can he rise to swarga, the paradise of his father, Indra. Even here, stay is impermanent, only as long as his merits last. Vishnu's Vaikuntha remains elusive.

Arjuna may be the hero of the Mahabharata, Krishna's companion and recipient of The Gita. He may be Nara to Krishna's Narayana. But that does not make him perfect. Even the state of the world after the war at Kuru-kshetra is far from perfect. In fact, traditionally, it marks the dawn of Kali yuga, the final era of a culture, before collapse. So much for Krishna's intervention!

The yearning for perfection stems from the desire to control and organize the world to our taste, to create a coc.o.o.n where everything makes sense to us. It demands that we judge the world as a problem that needs fixing, chaos that needs to be organized, a disease that needs to be cured, a polluted s.p.a.ce that needs purification. It a.s.sumes that the world needs to have a climax, a happy ending, or else life is a tragedy. These are typical of finite narratives, where there is only one life to lead.

Climax of Finite Narratives The word 'perfect' cannot be translated in Sanskrit, or any Indian language. The closest we come to it is excellent (uttam) and complete or comprehensive (purnatva), a reminder that Eden is not a Hindu concept. There is no fall from perfection, as in Abrahamic mythology. Nor is culture a journey out of chaos into order, as in Greek mythology. We can at best keep expanding our mind, keep getting more understanding, as we make the journey from limited reality (mithya) to limitless infinite reality (satya). Wisdom comes with the realization that other people's karma that impacts our life cannot be wished away. And this is most evident in the concept of Ram Rajya, the 'perfect' kingdom of Ram described in the Ramayana.

In Ram Rajya, everything is predictable, everything is pure, all wishes are fulfilled and everyone is taken care of. But then a Brahmin's son dies prematurely, because a 'low-caste' man called Shambuka wants to be a hermit and so has abandoned his vocation. And people gossip about Sita's stay in Ravana's palace, and a washerman (dhobi) calls it a 'stain' on the reputation of the Raghu clan. The desires and meanness of others are beyond Ram's control. To restore perfection, Ram has to do terrible things: kill an innocent hermit and banish an innocent wife. Aspirations are crushed and people are abandoned, in order to create predictability and purity for the rest. The horrific price of perfection is thus demonstrated. The physical and psychological violence generates more karmic ripples that end up as turbulent waves las.h.i.+ng against the perfection created. Shambuka's cry and Sita's anguish haunt Ram Rajya from without. Ram Rajya turns into rana-bhoomi, under siege by those excluded, like Indra's swarga surrounded by angry asuras.

Eventually the Treta yuga gives way to Dvapara yuga, where upright men like Bhisma and Karna allow the Kauravas to thrive while honest men like Yudhishthira gamble their kingdom and their wife away, even when Krishna walks the earth.

Does that make the Ramayana and the Mahabharata tragedies, since they do not have happy endings? Attempts to cla.s.sify the epics so are themselves judgemental, against the very spirit in which they were composed. The epics simply end with the death of their protagonists: Ram dies in Book 7 of the Ramayana while Krishna dies in the Mausala Parva, Book 16 of the Mahabharata; Arjuna dies in Book 17. Ram walks into the river Sarayu, and a stray arrow kills Krishna. Both have a smile on their lips when they die for they know death is not the end: another life awaits. Arjuna on the other hand slips while climing a mountain and dies in disappointment, having failed to reach swarga.

Beginning and End of Hindu Epics.

The Gita does not aspire for perfection. Hence, there are no rules in The Gita, only three paths to establish relations.h.i.+ps: karma yoga, bhakti yoga and gyana yoga that deal with human conduct, human emotions and human ident.i.ty. These three routes are interdependent. One cannot exist without the other. Without karma yoga, we have nothing to give, or receive from, the other. Without bhakti yoga, we are machines that feel nothing for the other. Without gyana yoga, we have no value, purpose or meaning. There can be no bhakta who does not do or understand. There can be no gyani who does not do or feel. There can be no karmi who does not feel or understand. The optimal functioning of the hands (karma) depends on the head (gyana) and the heart (bhakti). A yogi simultaneously does, feels and understands.

Interdependence of the Three Yogas.

Krishna presents these three paths to Arjuna like a mother lays out food. Arjuna has the option of eating what he feels like, what his body craves for. No matter what he eats, he has no control over the digestion, what his body will finally a.s.similate. The final outcome is dependent not just on his will (sankalpa) but also his natural tendencies (guna) and, of course, whatever he is supposed to experience (karma). Hence, Krishna is not disappointed when Arjuna's doubts and despair resurface again and again. It is how it is supposed to be.

Arjuna, some discover the divine through meditation and introspection, others decipher it through logic and a.n.a.lysis, others experience it through activity, and still others are introduced to it by listening to others. All are able to overcome the fear of mortality.-Bhagavad Gita: Chapter 13, verses 24 and 25 (paraphrased).

Krishna knows that in a world without boundaries, there will always be another chance, and then another.

Recommended Reading.

For a literal, readable translation of The Gita without commentary: * Debroy, Bibek. The Bhagavad Gita. New Delhi: Penguin Books India, 2005.

* Nabar, Vrinda and Tumkur, Shanta. The Bhagavad Git. Hertfords.h.i.+re, UK: Wordsworth Cla.s.sics, 1997.

* Menon, Ramesh. The Shrimad Bhagavad Gita. Delhi: Rupa Publications, 2004.

* Miller, Barbara. The Bhagavad-Gita. New York: Bantam Press, 1986.

For a readable translation that also captures the poetic spirit of The Gita: * Rao, Mani. Bhagavad Gita. New Delhi: Penguin Books India, 2011.

* Mitch.e.l.l, Stephen. Bhagavad Gita. London: Random House, 2000.

For a verse-by-verse translation of The Gita with commentary: * Easwaran, Eknath. The Bhagavad Gita. Mumbai: Jaico Publications, 1997.

* Sivananda, Swami. Bhagavad Gita. Divine Life Society Trust, 2008.

* Radhakrishnan, S. The Bhagavadgita. Delhi: HarperCollins India,2008.

For appreciating the history of The Gita: * Davis, Richard. The 'Bhagavad Gita': a Biography. Princeton, USA: Princeton University Press, 2016.

* Desai, Meghnad. Who Wrote the Bhagavadgita: a Secular Inquiry into a Sacred Text. Delhi: HarperCollins India, 2014.

For appreciating the Vedas, the Puranas and other Hindu literature: * Agarwal, Satya P. Selection from the Mahabharata: Reaffirming Gita's call for good of all. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsida.s.s, 2002.

* Dange, Sadas.h.i.+v Ambadas. Encyclopaedia of Puranic Beliefs and Practices, Vol: 15. New Delhi: Navran, 1990.

* Flood, Gavin. An Introduction to Hinduism. New Delhi: Cambridge University Press, 1998.

* Frawley, David. From the River of Heaven. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsida.s.s, 1992.

* Jaini, Padmanabh S. The Jaina Path of Purification. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsida.s.s, 1979.

* Mani, Vettam. Puranic Encyclopaedia. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsida.s.s, 1996.

* Stall, Frits. Discovery of the Vedas. New Delhi: Penguin Books India, 2008.

* Zimmer, Heinrich. Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsida.s.s, 1990.

For appreciating how imagination and language (brahmana) play a key role in human development: * Coupe, Lawrence. Myth [The New Critical Idiom Series]. London: Routledge, 1997.

* Harari, Yuval Noah. Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind. London: Harvill Secker, 2014.

* Pagel, Mark. Wired for Culture. London: Penguin Books UK, 2012.