The Loves of Krishna in Indian Painting and Poetry Part 14

Painting, Basohli, 104-7, pls. 4, 10, 18 (comment), 26 (comment), 27, 30, 31 Bengali, 111, 112 Bikaner, 99, 100 Bilaspur, 107, 111, pl. 18 Bundi, 101, 102, pls. 28, 32 Deccani, 97, pl. 34 European, pl. 1 (comment) Flemish, 14 Garhwal, 107, 108, pls. 3 (comment), 7, 8 (comment), 12, 19, 20, 25, 35, 38 (comment) German, 93 Gujarati, 94, 121 Guler, 107, 108, 117, 121, pls. 3 (comment), 21 (comment), 37 Italian, 14 Jain, 94-96, pl. 22 (comment) Jaipur, 104, 120 Jaunpur, 96, pls. 23-24 Kalighat, 111, 112 Kangra, 93, 103-111, 117, 121, pls. 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 11, 13-17, 21, 36 Kishangarh, 103, 104, pl. 39 Maithil, 111 Malwa, 97, 101, 102, pl. 33 Mughal, 13, 97-99, 103, 105, 107, 121, pls. 1, 2, 3 (comment) Nahan, pl. 38 Persian, 97 Udaipur, Mewar, 100, 101, 103-105, pl. 28 (comment), 29 Western Indian, 94-96, pl. 22 (comment) Western Rajasthani, pl. 22 Panchala, kingdom of, 20, 21 Pandavas, five sons of Pandu, rivals of the Kauravas (vide _Mahabharata_), 20-26, 51, 57, 62-66, 70, 116 Pandu, second son of Kuru, father of the Pandavas, 20 Parasurama, 'Rama with the Axe,' incarnation of Vishnu, 20 Pariks.h.i.+t, great-grandson of Krishna, 69 Parmanand Das, poet, 84 Parvati, consort of Siva, 37 Pavanarekha, wife of King Ugrasena, 26 Prabhasa, town near Dwarka, 68, 94, pl. 1 (comment) Prabhavananda, Swami, 15, 24, 116, 121 Pradyumna, Krishna's son by Rukmini, 64 Pragjyotisha, city of the demon, Naraka, 58, 117 Pralamba, demon in human form, 35, pls. 9, 10 (comment) Pratap Singh, Raja of Jaipur, 104 Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, pls. 23, 24, 32 Punjab Hills, 4, 13, 93, 98, 104, 105, 107, 111 Purkhu, Kangra artist, 109, 110, pls. 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 11, 16 Putana, ogress, 29, 42

Radha, Krishna's chief cowgirl love, 15, 16, 72-90, 96, 98, 103-105, 109-111, 113, 117, pls. 13 (comment). 20-29, 31-39 _Ragas_ and _Raginis_, modes of Indian music, 84, 101, 102, 107, pls. 33, 34 _Ragas and Raginis_, 121 Raghavan, V., 120 Rajasthan, 13, 95, 96, 99-105 _Rajput Painting_ (Coomaraswamy), 104, 108, 121, pl. 8 (comment) (Gray), 121 Ram Gopal, 15 Rama, incarnation of Vishnu, 20, 57, 115 _Ramayana_, 98 Rana Jagat Singh, ruler of Mewar, 100 Rana Raj Singh, ruler of Mewar, 100, 105 Randhawa, M.S., 121 _Rasamanjari_, Sanskrit treatise by Bhanu Datta, 9, 105, 106, 120, pls. 30, 31 _Rasika Priya_, Hindi treatise by Keshav Das (comment), 11, 90-92, 99-102, 105, 120, pls. 28, 30 (comment) _Razmnama_, Persian abridgement of the _Mahabharata_, 98, Pls. 1, 2 Re-birth, theory of, 17-19 Revati, wife of Balarama, 55 Rohini, a wife of Vasudeva, mother of Balarama, 27-31, 35, 44, 53, 99 _Roopa-lekha_, Indian art journal, 121 Roy, Jamini, 112 Roy, P.C., 121 Rukma, brother of Rukmini, 56, 64 Rukmini, Krishna's first queen, 15, 55, 56, 59, 60, 64, 66, 69-72, 118, pl. 18 Ruknuddin, Bikaner artist, 99 _Rupam_, Indian art journal, 118 Russell, M., 113

Saktasura, demon, 30 Sankhasura, yaksha demon, 44 Sansar Chand, Raja of Kangra, 13, 108-111 _Sat Sat_, poems by Bihari Lal, 110, pl. 36 Sattrajit, father of Satyabhama, 56, 57 Satyabhama, a queen of Krishna, 56, 57, 59, 60 Sawant Singh, Raja of Kishangarh, 103 Scroll paintings, 112 Sen, D.C., 121 Sen, R.N., 121 Sesha, serpent of eternity, a part of Vishnu, 27, 69, pl. 1 Shah Jahan, Mughal emperor, 99 Shahabaddin, Mewar artist, 100 Sher-Gil, Amrita, 112 s.h.i.+raz, 97 Sirmur, Punjab Hills, pl. 38 (comment) Sisupala, claimant to Rukmini, rival of Krishna, 22, 56, 59, 66, pl. 18 (comment) Sitwell, Sacheverell, 14 Siva, 17, 18, 37, 44, 58, 59, 64, 65, 67, pl. 2 Srinagar, Garhwal, 108 St. John of the Cross, 74, 75 Stchoukine, I, 121 _Studies in Indian Painting_, 121 Subhadra, sister of Krishna, 22, 64, 65 Sudama, brahman, early friend of Krishna, 62, 63, 108, pl. 19 Sudarsana, Celestial dancer, 40, 41 Sur Das, poet, 84, 86, pl. 29 Surabhi, cow of plenty, 40 Sursagar, Hindi poem, pl. 29 Surya, sun G.o.d, 18

Tagore, Rabindranath, 112 _Taking of Toll, The_, 121 _Ten Burnt Offerings_, 15 _Tess of the D'Urbervilles,_ 119 Trinavarta, whirlwind demon, 30

Udaipur, chief city, Mewar, 100, 101, 103-105, pl. 29 (comment) Udho, friend of Krishna, 52-54, 68 Ugrasena, king of Mathura, 26, 48, 54, 57, 67, 69 Ugrasura, snake demon, 33 _Upanishads_, 17 Usa, daughter of demon Vanasura, 64

Vaikuntha, heaven of Vishnu, 18, 59 Vallabhacharya, poet, 84 Vamana, dwarf incarnation of Vishnu, 20 Vanasura, demon with a thousand arms, 64 Varuna, G.o.d of water, 18, 38, pl. 1 Vasudeva, Yadava prince, father of Krishna, husband of Devaki, brother of Kunti, 21, 27-31, 44, 46, 48-53, 62, 69, pl. 3 Vatsasura, cow demon, 33 Vedas, 39, 46, 56, 117 _Vedic Age, The_, 121 Victoria and Albert Museum, 98, pls. 30, 33, 34 Vidyapati, poet, 84, 87, 90, 111 Vishnu, 17-20, 26-29, 36, 39, 40, 45-47, 49, 56-58, 67, 69, 70, 76, 115, 116, pl. 2 (comment) _Vishnu Purana_, 25, 116, 117, pl. 8 (comment) Visvakarma, divine architect, 54, 63 Vrishabhanu, father of Radha, 72 Vrishnis, kinsmen of Krishna, 23 Vyamasura, wolf demon, 45

Wellesz, E., 98 Williams, R.H.B., pl. 30 (comment) Wilson, H.H., 116, 117 Winternitz, M., 121 _Wonder that was India, The_, 19, 115, 117, 121 Wrestlers, Krishna's conflict with, 44, 45, 48, pl. 17

Yadavas, pastoral caste, Krishna's castemen, 21, 26, 27, 45, 49-57, 61, 62, 54, 66-69, 117, pls. 1 (comment), 2 (comment) Yasoda, wife of Nanda, foster-mother of Krishna, 27-33, 35, 49, 51-53, 61, 62, 72, 109 Yoga, 19, 23 Yudhisthira, leader of the Pandavas, husband of Draupadi, 21-23, 65, 66

THE PLATES

[Ill.u.s.tration]

PLATE 1

_The Death of Balarama_

Ill.u.s.tration to the Persian abridgement of the _Mahabharata_, the _Razmnama_ (or Book of the Wars) By Basawan Mughal (Akbar period), c. 1595 Collection H.H. the Maharaja of Jaipur, Jaipur

Although ill.u.s.trations of the Hindu epic, the _Mahabharata_, were rarely commissioned by Hindu patrons, the gigantic text possessed a unique appeal to Indian minds and for this reason the Mughal emperor, Akbar, chose it for translation into Persian. 'Having observed the fanatical hatred prevailing between Hindus and Muslims,' writes his biographer, Abul Fazl, 'and convinced that it arose only from their mutual ignorance, the enlightened monarch wished to dispel the same by rendering the books of the former accessible to the latter.' The work of translation was begun in 1582 and was probably concluded in 1588 when Abul Fazl wrote the preface.

It is unlikely, however, that the ill.u.s.trations were completed before 1595.

The present picture by one of Akbar's greatest Hindu artists ill.u.s.trates the sensitive naturalism which from antecedents in Khurasan came to elegant maturity in Mughal India between 1585 and 1600. Certain details--the drapery with its shaded folds, the steeples rising in the distance--are modelled on the European Renaissance pictures which by 1580 had already reached the court. Other details such as the lithe squirrels gambolling in the tree, the rearing snakes and dense luxuriant foliage can only have been painted by an artist devoted to the Indian scene.

In subject, the picture represents what Krishna saw on his return from destroying the Yadavas at Prabhasa. Balarama, his half-brother, has gone down to the sea and has there yielded up his spirit. Sesha, the great serpent, who is part of Vishnu himself, is now issuing from the body Balarama having been his incarnation. Snakes come to greet him while Varuna, the G.o.d of water, stands as 'an old man of the sea' ready to escort him to his long home.

[Ill.u.s.tration]

PLATE 2

_The Death of Krishna_

Ill.u.s.tration to the Persian abridgement of the _Mahabharata_, the _Razmuama_ (or Book of the Wars) By Mukund Mughal (Akbar period), c. 1595 Collection H.H. the Maharaja of Jaipur, Jaipur

Following the death of Balarama, Krishna prepares to leave the world. He sits in meditation and is shot in the sole of his right foot by Jara, a Bhil hunter--the arrow which kills him being tipped with part of the iron which has caused the destruction of the Yadavas.

The picture shows Krishna reclining on a platform of the kind still constructed in India at the base of sacred trees. An arrow transfixes his right foot while the hunter, dressed as a courtier in Mughal dress, is shown releasing the bow. In front of Krishna stand four awe-struck figures, representing the celestial sages and devotees of Vishnu who have come to attend his pa.s.sing. In the sky four G.o.ds look down. To the right is Siva. Then, a little to the left, is four-headed Brahma, below him, Indra, his body spotted with a thousand eyes and finally a fourth G.o.d of uncertain ident.i.ty. Around the platform surges the snarling sea as if impatiently awaiting Krishna's death before engulfing the doomed Dwarka.

The painting is by a colleague of Basawan (Plate 1) and ill.u.s.trates the same great text.

[Ill.u.s.tration]

PLATE 3

_The Slaughter of an Innocent_

Ill.u.s.tration to the _Bhagavata Purana_ Kangra, Punjab Hills, c. 1790 J.K. Mody collection, Bombay

Following the expansion of Indian miniature painting in the early seventeenth century, ill.u.s.trated versions of the tenth book of the _Bhagavata Purana_ began to be produced in parts of Hindu India. It was in the Punjab Hills, at the end of the eighteenth century, however, that romance and religion achieved their most delicate expression. The artist chiefly responsible was a certain Nainsukh who had arrived at the State of Guler in about 1740. His way of painting had marked affinities with that of Basawan (Plate 1) and represents a blend of early Mughal naturalism with later Hindu sentiment. The style founded by him influenced members of his own family, including his nephew Kushala and ultimately spread to Kangra and Garhwal where it reached its greatest heights. The present picture, together with Plates 5, 6, 8, 9, 11 and 16, is possibly by the Kangra artist Purkhu and with others of the series ill.u.s.trates perhaps the greatest interpretation of the _Bhagavata Purana_ ever produced in Indian painting.

In the picture, the tyrant ruler Kansa is sleeping on a bed as a courtier prepares to break the fateful news of Krishna's birth. To the right, Devaki, Krishna's mother, nurses the baby girl whom her husband, Vasudeva, has subst.i.tuted for the infant Krishna. Kansa is wresting the baby from her in order to dash its head against a boulder. As he does so, she eludes his grasp and ascends to heaven in a flash, being, in fact, the eight-armed G.o.ddess Devi.

[Ill.u.s.tration]

PLATE 4

_Krishna stealing b.u.t.ter_

Ill.u.s.tration to an incident from the _Bhagavata Purana_ Basohli, Punjab Hills, c. 1700 N.C. Mehta collection, Bombay

Besides ill.u.s.trating the tenth book of the _Bhagavata Purana_ as a whole, Indian artists sometimes chose isolated episodes and composed their pictures around them. The present picture is an instance of this practice, its subject being the baby Krishna pilfering b.u.t.ter. As Yasoda, Krishna's foster-mother, goes inside the house, Krishna and the cowherd children stage an impudent raid. A cowherd boy mounts a wooden mortar and then, balanced on his shoulders, the young Krishna helps himself to the b.u.t.ter which is kept stored in a pot suspended by strings from the roof. A second cowherd boy reaches up to lift the b.u.t.ter down while edging in from the right, a monkey, emblematic of mischievous thieving, shares in the spoil.

The picture ill.u.s.trates the wild and vehemently expressive style of painting which suddenly appeared at Basohli, a tiny State in the Punjab Hills, towards the end of the seventeenth century. The jagged form of Yasoda, cut in two by the lintel of the doorway, the stabbing lines of the churning pole, grazing sticks and cords, as well as the sharp angles of the house and its furniture, all contribute to a state of taut excitement.

[Ill.u.s.tration]

PLATE 5

_The Felling of the Trees_

Ill.u.s.tration to the _Bhagavata Purana_ Kangra, Punjab Hills, c. 1790 State Museum, Lucknow

From the same great series as Plate 3, here attributed to the Kangra artist Purkhu.

The young Krishna, tied to a mortar to keep him out of mischief, has dragged it between two trees and thereby uprooted them. The cowherds, led by the bearded Nanda, Krishna's foster-father, have hurried to the scene and Balarama, Krishna's half-brother, is excitedly pointing out that Krishna is safe. In the foreground, emerging from the earth are two crowned figures--Nala and Kuvara, the sons of the yaksha king, Kubera, who, as a consequence of a curse had been turned into the two trees.

Doomed to await Krishna's intervention, they have now been released.

Reclining on the trunks, still tied to the mortar, the young Krishna surveys the scene with pert satisfaction.

[Ill.u.s.tration]

PLATE 6

_The Road to Brindaban_