Familiar Talks on Science-World-Building and Life. Earth Part 11

There are other effects produced in rocks during the ice flow in North America that are very interesting. Great grooves are formed in the rocks, in many cases running for long distances, that have been worn in by the cutting power of the great ice sheet during the progress of its movement. There is a great groove to be seen at Kelly's Island in Lake Erie. It will be remembered that this lake is supposed to have been formed entirely by the ice of the glacial period. In its movement across the country which is now covered by the lake the ice encountered a huge rock formation at Kelly's Island. Great V-shaped grooves were cut through this rock by the action of the ice, deep enough for a man to stand in. In other places the rock was planed off in the form of a great molding, a number of feet wide, with the same smoothness and accuracy as though done by a machine.

Another effect of the glacial period has been the creation of numerous waterfalls throughout the glaciated area. The most notable instance is that of the Falls of Niagara.

In preglacial times the beds of all rivers and water courses had worn down to an even slope, so that there were very few, if any, waterfalls such as we have to-day. As we have before stated, Niagara River as well as the St. Lawrence River is a new outlet for the drainage of the great lakes. A part of this drainage formerly had its outlet through the Mohawk Valley into the Hudson, which is now filled up with glacial drift. The evidence is so conclusive that it is no longer doubted that the Niagara River dates from the time that the ice receded from that point. When the water first began to flow through this new channel it plunged over the high rocky cliff at Queenstown, and from that time to this it has been wearing its way back to the present position of Niagara Falls, a distance of about seven miles. A vast amount of interest centers about this river because it is the best evidence we have of the time that has expired since the glacial period. A great deal of study has been given to determine the amount of erosion at the Falls during a year's time. If this could be accurately determined, then by measuring the distance from the present falls to Queenstown, we could easily determine the number of years since the ice period. It is difficult to determine, for the conditions may have changed; for instance, the rock at the Falls to-day is said to be harder than it is further down toward Queenstown. The estimates vary from 35,000 years to 10,000 years--that is, from a rate of erosion of five feet to one foot, per year.

Every science is, nearly or remotely, related to every other science. If we could determine accurately the date of the ice period it would settle a whole lot of other questions that are related to it, and one of them is the antiquity of man. Many stone implements such as were made and used by the aborigines have been found at various times buried deeply under the glacial drift. These finds have occurred so often that there no longer remains a doubt but that a race of men existed on this continent in preglacial times. There are evidences that at a time long ago the temperate zone extended far north of this, and it is not impossible that what is now the continent of Asia and that of North America were joined. In fact, they come very close together to-day at Bering Strait. If such were the case this continent could have been inhabited from the old world by an overland route. This, however, is mere speculation. There are a number of factors that are taken into account in determining the period of the ice age besides the Niagara River and the Falls. The Falls of St. Anthony at Minneapolis (which like the Niagara is a creature of the ice age), the wear of water on the sh.o.r.es of the great lakes, the newness of the rocks that are piled up on the terminal moraines, all point to a much shorter period since the ice age than it used to be supposed, and indicate that the time does not exceed 10,000 years.

To the ordinary mind the ice age no doubt seems like a myth, but to the man of science who has made a study of all of these evidences it is as real as any fact in history, and much more real than some of the history we read. In the former case we are dealing with evidences that appeal to our senses, while in the latter we are dealing with the recollections of men concerning what purport to have been actual transactions, and we know enough about the human mind to make it difficult sometimes to draw the line between the actual and the imaginary.

The glacial period is not only closely related to the topography of North America and parts of Europe in the changing of river beds, the formation of lakes, the transportation of rock, the grinding down of mountains and spreading the debris over thousands of miles in extent, but it is related in an intimate way to many of the sciences, such as botany and zoology. A study of the flight of animals and plants in front of the great advancing ice sheet is a subject of intense interest. The migration of great forests would seem to be an impossible thing when viewed from the standpoint of a casual observer. It is true that individual trees could not take themselves up and move forward in advance of the oncoming ice, but they could and did send their children on ahead, and when the ice had overtaken the children there were still the children's children ad infinitum.

By an examination of the map it will be seen that the land gathers about the north pole, while the south pole is surrounded chiefly by great oceans. As we have hinted before, in preglacial times the temperate zone extended much farther north than it does to-day, and north of that there was an arctic zone (which to-day is largely covered with ice sheets), where forests, plants, and animals flourished that were fitted for an arctic climate. When the glacial period set in and the ice sheet began its southern journey this zone or climate was moved southward in front of the ice, thus forming, as it were, a moving zone whose climatic conditions were similar to those of the arctic regions (at least so far as temperature was concerned) in preglacial times. The ice movement was so gradual that time was given for forests to spring up in advance of it that moved southward at about the same rate as that of the moving ice.

Undoubtedly the average movement was very slow and was probably thousands of years reaching its southernmost limit, which is now marked by the terminal moraine. Thus it will be seen that while the individual trees and plants could not move, the forest as a whole could. It was gradually being cut down on its northern limit and as gradually it grew up on the southern limit of the zone; the ice movement being so slow that the young tree of to-day on the southern limit becomes a full-grown king of the forest by the time the relentless icebergs reach it and cut it down and thus the process went on until the plants, trees, and animals of the arctic region were driven hundreds of miles south of the great chain of lakes on the northern boundary of the United States.

Many of the animals of preglacial times were unable to stand the strain of the ever-changing climatic conditions and have become extinct, but their fossil remains are left to tell the story to the present and future ages. Much of the history of those times is a sealed book, but the persevering energy of the glacialist and archaeologist is gradually turning the leaves of this old book and revealing new chapters of the wonderful story of the ice.

As the ice receded the arctic zone again traveled northward, and many animals, plants, and trees that had survived the vicissitudes of the ice age, traveled back with it. Some of them, however, became acclimated and by adapting themselves to the new conditions remained behind to live and grow with the aborigines of preglacial times. Some of the plants and flowers that grew in profusion immediately under the edge of the great ice sheet were unable to live under the new conditions of increased warmth--that came with the retrograde movement of the ice--and either had to follow closely the receding ice or escape to higher alt.i.tudes, where they found a congenial clime. Thus it is that we have arctic plants and flowers above the timber line and near the snow line of our high mountains. In proof of this theory it has been found that these arctic plants do not exist upon high mountains, such as the Peak of Teneriffe, where they have been isolated from the glaciated region. The Peak of Teneriffe is situated on one of the Canary Islands, surrounded by water, so that there was no possible chance for the arctic plants to seek refuge on these isolated elevations, such as the continental mountains furnish.

Thus it will be seen that the progression and recession of the ice have not only formed great lakes, changed river beds, and covered a million square miles of area with glacial drift averaging fifty feet in depth, making many waterfalls and giving variety to the surface of the earth, besides producing the finest agricultural region in the world, but have also given variety to our forests and plants wherever this ice sheet has extended.

CHAPTER XXIX.

DRAINAGE BEFORE THE ICE AGE.

We have already said that during the ice age river-beds were changed, valleys were filled up, new lakes were made, and waterfalls created.

Great as were the changes made by the carrying power of moving ice, still greater were those made in preglacial times; not, however, from the action of moving ice, but from running water. Erosion caused by running water has, probably, during the life of the world, transported more material from place to place, from mountain to valley, and from valley to ocean, than any other agency; chiefly for the reason that it has been so much longer doing its work.

The valley of the Ohio River, a thousand miles or more in length, together with the great number of feeders that empty into it, is an instance of the wonderful erosive power of running water. The valley of the Ohio River will probably average a mile in width at its upper level and, deep as it is to-day, it was much deeper in preglacial times. There is evidence that the whole bed of the river was from 100 to 150 feet deeper than it is at present. This has been determined by borings at different points to ascertain the depth of the drift that was lodged during the glacial period in the trough of the Ohio River. Anyone traveling up or down the river to-day can readily see that it is a great sinuous groove cut down through the earth by millions of years of water erosion, and not only this, but that at some time in its history this great valley has been partly filled, forming on one or both sides of the river level areas--called bottom land. These lands are exceedingly productive, owing to the great depth and richness of the soil.

For many years the writer lived upon one of the rivers tributary to the Ohio and often made trips by steamboat up and down the Ohio River.

Traveling along this river a close observer will be struck by the exactness of the stratifications in the rock and in the coal beds to be seen on each side of the river. They match as perfectly as the grain of a block of wood when sawn asunder--showing that these coal beds were formed at an age long before the water cut this sinuous groove. What the water was doing while these coal beds were forming will be brought out in some future chapter. All the rivers that are tributary to the Ohio, such as the Monongahela, the Alleghany, the Muskingum, the Tennessee, the c.u.mberland, the Kentucky, the Wabash, the Miami, the Licking, the Scioto, the Big Sandy, the Kanawha, the Hocking, and the Great Beaver, besides numerous smaller streams, have their own valleys that have been worn away by the same process, and to a greater depth than they now appear to be. All of the material that once filled these valleys has been carried down by the water filling up the bottom of the ocean and building out the great delta of the lower Mississippi. Mountains have been worn down and carried away by the action of the running water until their height is much lower than in former times. The great lakes, that were enlarged during the glacial period and in some cases wholly created--by the scooping out and damming up of the waterways and by piling glacial drift around their sh.o.r.es--have had some of their outlets raised to a higher level, and others have been created anew.

The old river beds that formerly carried the water that is now drained through the St. Lawrence were eroded by the action of running water to a great depth, as is shown by numerous borings along the valley of the Mohawk and down the Hudson. The salt wells at Syracuse, N. Y., have been put down through glacial drifts and the salt water is found in the bed of the old river. Great bodies of salt are found at that low level, constantly dissolved by the water percolating through the sand and gravel of the glacial drift. This salt water is pumped up and evaporated, leaving the salt--forming one of the important industries of that region. All of the rivers from the Ohio eastward tell the same story, which is that at some remote period the land was much higher above the level of the sea than it is to-day. The bottoms of many of these old river beds are lower than sea-level, but as they were made by running water they must have been at one time above that point.

There is abundant evidence that the earth sinks in some places and rises in others. Along the ridges of some of the eastern mountains are found in great abundance the products of the bottom of the ocean. These evidences show that at some period, when the mountains were formed, a great convulsion of nature raised the bottom of the ocean to thousands of feet above its level. Evidences of this exist in various parts not only of the United States, but of the world.

You ask, If this erosion goes on and the mountains and hills are carried down and filled in to the low places of the ocean, what is the final destiny of the earth that now appears above the surface of the ocean?

Evidently if the earth should remain without further upheaval, at some time in the far, far future the land would gradually wear down and be carried off into the ocean and the ocean would gradually rise, owing to its restricted area, until it would again cover the whole earth as it undoubtedly did at one time in the earth's history. This fact need not occasion any uneasiness on the part of those who are living to-day or for millions of years to come.

The problem of building a world and then tearing it to pieces is a very complicated one. There is a constant battle going on between the powers that build up and those that tear down; and this is as true of character-building as it is of world-building. The world has never been exactly alike any two successive days from the time its foundations were laid to the present moment. It seems to be a fundamental law of all life and growth, as well as of all decay, that there shall be a constant change. There is no such thing as rest in nature. The smallest molecules and atoms of matter are in constant agitation. In the animal and vegetable world there is a period of life and growth, and a period of decay and death; and this seems to be the destiny of planets themselves as well as the things that live and grow upon them. Still, science teaches us that with all this turmoil and change nothing either of matter or energy is lost, but that it is simply undergoing one eternal round of change. Does this law apply to mind and soul? Do we die? Or do we simply change?

Nature's Miracles:

FAMILIAR TALKS ON SCIENCE.

By PROF. ELISHA GRAY.

VOL. I.--World Building and Life: Earth, Air and Water.

VOL. II.--Energy and Vibration: Force, Heat, Light, Sound, Explosives.

VOL. III.--Electricity and Magnetism.

Elisha Gray is a name known and honored by scientific men the world over. Farmer's boy, blacksmith apprentice, s.h.i.+p-joiner, carpenter, self-supporting through a college course; his genius interested him in electricity, and in that realm his Inventions have made him famous.

These, with his organization and presidency of the Congress of Electricians at the Columbian Fair of 1893, and his many decorations and degrees, conferred at home and abroad, all stand sponsors for his fame.

These little volumes convey scientific truth without technical terms, and are enriched with reminiscence, anecdote, and reflections that allure and hold the interest.

"The place held by Elisha Gray in the scientific world has been won not by catering to the applause of the public, but by a life devoted to original investigation in untrodden fields."--_Chicago Times-Herald._