Japan Part 17

[Ill.u.s.tration]

The Reigning Emperor.

It was thought that the death of an emperor of strong prejudices and of a mature age would naturally favor a more complete control by the new shogun. It was not to be antic.i.p.ated that an emperor, still only a youth, would pursue the same policy as his father, and undertake to a.s.sume a real and active part in the government of his country. But the shogun and his friends underrated the influences which were gathered at Kyoto, and which now went far beyond an anti-foreign sentiment and were chiefly concerned with schemes for restoring the imperial power and unifying the form of government.

The daimyo of Tosa, who was a man of liberal sentiments and of great penetration, addressed a letter to the shogun in October, 1867, in which he frankly says: "The cause [of our trouble] lies in the fact that the administration proceeds from two centres, causing the empire's eyes and ears to be turned in two different directions. The march of events has brought about a revolution, and the old system can no longer be persevered in. You should restore the governing power into the hands of the sovereign and so lay a foundation on which j.a.pan may take its stand as the equal of other countries."(310)

[Ill.u.s.tration]

Imperial Crests.

The shogun being deeply impressed with the wisdom of this advice drew up a doc.u.ment addressed to his va.s.sals, asking their opinion of the advisability of his resignation. Among other things he says: "It appears to me that the laws cannot be maintained in face of the daily extension of our foreign relations, unless the government be conducted by one head, and I propose therefore to surrender the whole governing power into the hands of the imperial court. This is the best I can do for the interests of the empire."(311) According to this announced resolution, on the 19th of November, 1867, the shogun resigned into the hands of the emperor his authority. This surrender was accepted, and thus a dynasty which had lasted from 1603 came to an end. That this surrender might be declined and the power still continue to be held by the Tokugawa, was perhaps the hope and wish of the last shogun. But it was not to be. The powerful clans who for years had labored for the destruction of the Tokugawa primacy were ready to undertake the responsibility of a new government. And although the change was not to be effected without a struggle, yet from this point may be counted to begin the new period of the restoration.

CHAPTER XV. THE RESTORED EMPIRE.

The resignation of the shogun was accepted by the emperor, on the understanding that a conference of the daimyos was to be called and its opinion taken in reference to the subsequent conduct of affairs. In the meantime the ex-shogun, under the command of the emperor, was to continue the administration, particularly of those interests which concerned the foreign powers. But the allied western daimyos feared the effect of leaving the administration in the hands of their enemies. The possession of the person of the emperor was always reckoned an important advantage.

Especially was this the case when the emperor was only a boy, whose influence in the affairs of the government could have little weight. They resolved, therefore, to take measures which would definitely ensure the termination of the shogun's power, and secure for themselves the result for which they had been so long laboring.

On January 3, 1868, by a so-called order of the emperor,(312) but really by the agreement of the allied daimyos, the troops of the Aizu clan, who were in charge of the palace gates, were dismissed from their duty, and their place a.s.sumed by troops of the clans of Satsuma, Tosa, Aki, Owari, and Echizen. The _kuges_ who surrounded the court and who were favorable to the Tokugawa party were discharged and forbidden to enter its precincts. The vacant places were filled by adherents of the new order of things. The offices of _kwambaku_ and _shogun_ were by imperial edict abolished. A provisional plan of administration was adopted and persons of adequate rank appointed to conduct the several departments. "A decree was issued announcing that the government of the country was henceforth solely in the hands of the imperial court."(313)

One of the first acts of the new government was to recall the daimyo of Choshu, who had been expelled from Kyoto, in 1863, and to invite back the _kuges_ who had been exiled and deprived of their revenues and honors. The sentence of confiscation which had been p.r.o.nounced upon them was abrogated and they were restored to their former privileges. One of them, Sanjo Saneyos.h.i.+, as prime minister spent the remainder of his life in reviving the ancient and original form of government. The Choshu troops who had been driven out of the capital in 1863, were recalled and given a share with the loyal clans in guarding the palace of the emperor.

This powerful clan,(314) which had suffered such a varied experience, was destined to take and maintain a leading position in the future development of the restored empire.

The Aizu and other clans which had been devoted friends of the Tokugawa shoguns were especially outraged by this conciliatory spirit shown to the Choshu troops. They claimed that this clan by resisting the imperial commands had merited the opprobrious t.i.tle of rebels (_chotoki_), and were no longer fit for the a.s.sociation of loyal clans. But the Choshu daimyo had been restored to the favor of his emperor, and moreover was allied with the clans whose power was paramount at Kyoto, so that the disapprobation of the Tokugawa adherents had little terror for him.

At the suggestion of his friends the shogun retired to his castle at Osaka, and the troops attached to his cause also retreated and gathered under his standard. The situation of affairs was for a time uncertain. The shogun had resigned, and his resignation had been accepted, but he had been asked by the emperor to continue his administration. Subsequently, under the pressure of the allied clans, the emperor had abolished the shogunate and entrusted the administration to a provisional government.

This last action the friends of the ex-shogun resented as the doings of revolutionists. It is believed that he himself was averse to further conflict. Any step which he might take in the vindication of his rights must involve war with the allied clans, and he was not a man of war.

While these critical events were taking place, the representatives of foreign powers came down from Yedo to Hyogo with an impressive array of men-of-war. By invitation of the ex-shogun they visited him at Osaka. In reply to the representatives he made an address,(315) complaining of the arbitrary conduct of those who now had possession of the imperial person, and notifying them that he was willing and able to protect their rights under the treaties, and asking them to await the action of a conference to be summoned. In consequence of the conflict which was now imminent, the representatives of the treaty powers issued a notice to their citizens that neutrality must be maintained under all circ.u.mstances, and arms and ammunition must not be sold to either party.

The first armed conflict between the two parties took place during the closing days of January, 1868. Two of the allied daimyos, Owari and Echizen, were sent to Osaka to confer with the ex-shogun, in the hope that some terms might be agreed upon, by which further difficulty could be avoided. They were both Tokugawa daimyos, Owari belonging to one of the _go-sanke_ families, and Echizen being a descendant of Ieyasu's son. They offered to the ex-shogun an honorable appointment, and if he would come to Kyoto they a.s.sured him a ready audience before the emperor. He promised to obey the emperor's command and visit the capital.

After the envoys had gone his friends raised suspicions in his mind concerning his personal safety. The daimyos of Aizu and Kuwana offered to accompany him in case he determined to go. They organized, therefore, a force of about 10,000 men with which they proposed to escort him. He must have known that a formidable military escort like this would precipitate a conflict. However, he set out. The news of the preparations of the ex-shogun was brought to Kyoto, and aroused a determination to resist his invasion of the capital. He had been invited to the palace by the emperor, but he was to come as a peaceful visitor. If he had determined to come with a guard composed of the enemies of the empire he must be resisted.

Troops of the Satsuma and Choshu clans were, therefore, posted to intercept the march of the ex-shogun's escort. It is believed that they numbered about 1,500(316) men. The fighting took place on the roads leading from Osaka to Kyoto, and lasted during the 28th, 29th, and 30th of January. It ended in the complete defeat of the rebel army, although it so far outnumbered its adversaries.

The ex-shogun being thus disappointed in his plan to enter the capital with a commanding force retired to his castle at Osaka, from which he proceeded on a steam corvette to Yedo.(317) The castle at Osaka was burnt, and the defeated troops made their way by land to the same rendezvous. The antipathy existing between the Satsuma clan and the Tokugawa adherents showed itself in a very p.r.o.nounced manner in Yedo. The Satsuma _yas.h.i.+ki_, which was occupied by troops of that clan and by _ronins_ favorable to them was surrounded by Tokugawa troops and burnt. Collisions between the two parties were of constant occurrence, which continued until the arrival of the imperial troops restored order. In Hyogo too, which with Osaka was opened to foreign trade on the first of January, 1868, there were difficulties between the foreigners and anti-foreign element in the population. But these troubles rapidly disappeared, because the new government took pains at once to make it plain that the treaties with foreign powers were to be kept, and outrages committed against those who were in the country under these treaties were not to be tolerated.

On February 8, 1868, the emperor sent to the foreign representatives a request that they communicate to their governments the fact that hereafter the administration of both internal and external affairs would be conducted by him, and that officers would be appointed to conduct the business which may arise under the foreign treaties.

In token of the sincerity of this communication an invitation was conveyed to the representatives of the powers then at Hyogo to present themselves before the emperor on March 23d. The significance of this event can scarcely now be conceived. Never before in the history of the empire had its divine head deigned to admit to his presence the despised foreigner, or put himself on an equality with the sovereign of the foreigner. The event created in the ancient capital the utmost excitement. The French and Dutch ministers had each in turn been conducted to the palace and had been received in audience. No serious incident had occurred. But during the progress of Sir Harry Parkes,(318) the British representative, from his lodgings to the palace, two fanatical _samurai_ rushed upon his escort, and before they could be overpowered wounded nine of them. One of the would-be a.s.sa.s.sins was killed and the other was captured after being desperately wounded. The party returned at once to the lodgings of the envoy who fortunately was uninjured.

The court, by whose invitation the ministers had undertaken to present themselves before the emperor, was overwhelmed with mortification. High officers at once waited upon Sir Harry and tendered their sympathy and profound regret. After making every reparation in their power, arrangements were made to hold the audience on the day following that originally appointed. It was held accordingly without further incident.

Warned by this alarming occurrence, the government issued an edict, that as the treaties had now been sanctioned by the emperor, the protection of foreigners was henceforth his particular care; that if therefore any _samurai_ were to be guilty of an outrage against them, he should be degraded from his rank, and denied the honorable privilege of committing _hara-kiri_; he should suffer the punishment of a common criminal and have his head exposed in token of dishonor. Miyeda s.h.i.+geru, the surviving culprit, was thus punished.

The scene of the brief contest was now s.h.i.+fted to the east. The ex-shogun seemed to vacillate between a complete surrender of his power and a provisional retention of it until the will of the nation could be taken by a conference of the daimyos. On the arrival of the imperial forces in Yedo the final terms of his future treatment were announced to the ex-shogun: That he retire to Mito, and there live in seclusion; that the castle in Yedo be evacuated; and that the vessels and armaments now in the possession of the ex-shogun be surrendered. These terms were accepted, and he took up his residence in his ancestral province of Mito. Subsequently he was permitted to remove to the castle of Sumpu at s.h.i.+zuoka. With him the dynasty of Tokugawa shoguns vanishes from history.

His adherents, however, still continued to resist the imperial forces. For months the Aizu troops hovered about Yedo, and at last came to blows with the imperial troops at the grounds of the Uyeno temple on July 4, 1868. It was a hard-fought battle, and was at last decided by an Armstrong gun in the hands of the Hizen troops. The fine old temple was destroyed, and the rebel forces withdrew to the north.

Further complications arose-fighting at Utsunomiya, etc.,-but at last they were ended by the surrender of the castle of Wakamatsu, where the daimyo of Aizu had made a stand. With generous fort.i.tude he took the blame upon himself and submitted to the clemency of his sovereign.

It is only necessary now in order to bring to a close the account of this short military contest, to refer to the movements of the fleet lying at s.h.i.+nagawa. It will be remembered that by the terms accepted by the ex-shogun these vessels were to be surrendered to the imperial forces.

There were seven of them, mounting in all eighty-three guns. They were under the command of Enomoto Izumi-no-kami, who had learned in Holland the science of naval war. He did not approve of his master surrendering these muniments of war. On the morning of the day when the vessels were to be delivered over to the imperial commander, they had disappeared from their anchorage. In the night Enomoto had got up steam, crept out through Yedo bay, and sailed northward to more friendly climes. The imperial fleet followed, and after some manuvring at Sendai proceeded to Hakodate. Here the warlike operations between the rebels and the imperial troops lasted till July, 1869. Finally, the leaders, Enomoto and Matsudaira Taro, seeing that it was hopeless to contend longer against a constantly increasing enemy, offered to commit _hara-kiri_, in order that their followers might be saved by a surrender. Their unselfish purpose was not, however, permitted. Then it was determined that the two leaders should give themselves up to the besiegers, to save the rest. This was done. The prisoners were sent to Yedo, and their gallant conduct and heroic devotion to the cause of their prince were so keenly appreciated that they were all pardoned.

While these events were transpiring in the east and north, the work of establis.h.i.+ng a system of administration was proceeded with at Kyoto.

A const.i.tution was drawn up, detailing the various departments of the government, and the duties of the officers in each. These departments were: 1. Of supreme administration; 2. of the s.h.i.+nto religion; 3. of home affairs; 4. of foreign affairs; 5. of war; 6. of finance; 7. of judicial affairs; 8. of legislative affairs. This scheme underwent several changes, and for a long time was regarded as only tentative.

The ablest men in the movements which were now in progress were afraid of the traditions of indulgence and effeminacy which attached to the court at Kyoto. In order to restore the government to a true and self-respecting basis, it seemed necessary to cut loose from the centuries of seclusion in which the emperor had remained, and enter upon the work of governing the empire as a serious and solemn task. It was in this spirit that Okubo Tos.h.i.+michi of Satsuma, one of the ablest of the statesmen of the new era, made in 1868 a novel and startling proposition. It was in a memorial(319) addressed by him to the emperor. He proposed that the emperor should abandon the traditions which had grown up respecting his person and his court, and rule his empire with personal supervision. To do this successfully, he recommended that the capital be transferred from the place of its degrading superst.i.tions to a new home. He suggested that Osaka be the place selected.

If the emperor's court had been under the same influences as had governed it in past years, such a proposition would have been received with horror.

Perhaps even the bold proposer would have been deemed fit for the ceremony of _hara-kiri_. But the men who surrounded the emperor belonged to a different school, and the emperor himself, although he was still an inexperienced youth, had already begun to breathe the freer air of a new life. The proposition was welcomed, and led to the great change which followed. After discussion and consideration it was determined that the emperor should make his residence not in Osaka, which would have been a great and impressive change, but in Yedo, where for two hundred and fifty years the family of Ieyasu had wielded the destinies of the empire. By this change more than any other was emphasized the fact that hereafter the executive as well as the ultimate power was to be found in the same imperial hands.

Acting on these principles the emperor followed his victorious army and, November 26, 1869, arrived at Yedo and took up his residence in the castle. Reports were made to him of the complete settlement of all difficulties in the north and the establishment of peace. In token of his arrival the name of Yedo had been changed to Tokyo(320) (eastern capital), by which name it has since been known. As a compensation to the disappointed and disheartened citizens of Kyoto, their city received the corresponding designation of Saikyo (western capital). The year-period, which from January, 1865, had borne the name of Keio, had been changed to _Meiji_(321) (Enlightened Peace), and was fixed to begin from January, 1868. Heretofore the year-periods had been changed whenever it seemed desirable to mark a fortunate epoch. But by the edict establis.h.i.+ng the _Meiji_ year-period, it was settled that hereafter an emperor was to make but one change in the year-period during his reign.

The emperor returned to the western capital during the spring of 1869 for a brief visit. The usual etiquette of mourning for his father required his presence at the imperial tomb. He also availed himself of this visit to wed the present empress, who was a princess of the house of Ichijo,(322) one of the ancient families descended from the Fujiwara. He came back again in April, but there was so much opposition on the part of the inhabitants of the ancient capital to the complete loss of their emperor, that it was deemed most prudent for the newly married empress to remain behind. She did not set out for Tokyo to join her husband until the November following, where she arrived without incident.

A surprising reminiscence of the Christianity which was supposed to have been extinguished in the seventeenth century came to light in 1865.

Several Christian communities in the neighborhood of Nagasaki(323) were discovered, who had preserved their faith for more than two hundred years.

Without priests, without teachers, almost without any printed instruction, they had kept alive by tradition through successive generations a knowledge of the religion which their ancestors had professed. These communities had no doubt maintained a discreet quiet as to the tenets of their belief. They had a traditional fear of the persecution to which their fathers had been subjected and sought by silence to remain undisturbed. It was the rejoicing at their discovery which directed the attention of the government to the fire which had been so long smouldering.

A new edict of the imperial government, displayed upon the public edict-boards in 1868, first called the notice of the foreign representatives to the measures which were being taken.(324) It was as follows: "The evil sect called Christian is strictly prohibited.

Suspicious persons should be reported to the proper officers, and rewards will be given." Nearly all the ministers of foreign powers remonstrated against this proclamation, as throwing discredit on the religions of their countries. The j.a.panese officials defended the punishment of Christians by alleging the national prejudice against them, which had come from the preceding centuries. They argued that the question was one of purely domestic concern, of which foreign nations could have no adequate knowledge, and in which they had no right to interfere.

The Christians chiefly lived in Urakami, a village near Nagasaki. They were said to number about four thousand. Orders were sent by the government from Tokyo in June, 1868, that all the families who would not recant should be deported and put in the charge of daimyos in different provinces. Only a small part of the Christians were thus exiled. The government probably dealt with greater leniency because they found the treaty powers so deeply interested. Subsequently the measures taken against the native Christians were withdrawn. In March, 1872, those who had been dispersed among the daimyos were granted permission to return to their homes, and persecution for religious belief was ended forever.

On April 17, 1869, before his court and an a.s.sembly of daimyos, the emperor took what has been called the charter oath(325) in five articles, in substance, as follows:

1. A deliberative a.s.sembly shall be formed, and all measures decided by public opinion.

2. The principles of social and political economics should be diligently studied by both the superior and inferior cla.s.ses of our people.

3. Every one in the community shall be a.s.sisted to persevere in carrying out his will for all good purposes.

4. All the absurd usages of former times should be disregarded, and the impartiality and justice displayed in the workings of nature be adopted as the basis of action.

5. Wisdom and ability should be sought after in all quarters of the world for the purpose of firmly establis.h.i.+ng the foundations of the empire.

The promise in the first article to establish a deliberative a.s.sembly was watched with the greatest solicitude. And when during the same year the _kogisho_(326) (parliament) was called together, great hopes were entertained of its usefulness. It was composed of persons representing each of the daimiates, who were chosen for the position by the daimyos. It was a quiet peaceful debating society,(327) whose function was to give advice to the imperial government.

That it was a thoroughly conservative body is apparent from the result of its discussion upon several of the traditional customs of j.a.pan. On the proposition to recommend the abolition of the privilege of _hara-kiri_ the vote stood: Ayes 3, noes 200, and not voting 6. On the proposition to abolish the wearing of swords, which was introduced and advocated by Mori Arinori, the final vote was unanimously against it in a house of 213.(328) After a short and uneventful career the _kogisho_ was dissolved in the autumn of the same year in which it was summoned. It had been a step, but not a very important step, in the direction of parliamentary government.