The Pleasure Instinct Part 8

54 Experience-expectant stimuli Experience-expectant stimuli In Barnard, KE, Brazelton, TB (1990) In Barnard, KE, Brazelton, TB (1990) Touch: The Foundation of Experience Touch: The Foundation of Experience. International University Press, Madison, CT.

55 Thus, whisker sensation Thus, whisker sensation Kossut, M (1998) Experience-dependent changes in function and anatomy of adult barrel cortex. Kossut, M (1998) Experience-dependent changes in function and anatomy of adult barrel cortex. Experimental Brain Research, Experimental Brain Research, 123 (1-2): 110-116; Glazewski, S (1998) Experience-dependent changes in vibrissae evoked responses in the rodent barrel cortex. 123 (1-2): 110-116; Glazewski, S (1998) Experience-dependent changes in vibrissae evoked responses in the rodent barrel cortex. Acta Neurobiologica Exp (Wars), Acta Neurobiologica Exp (Wars), 58(4): 309-320; Fox, K (2002) Anatomical pathways and molecular mechanisms for plasticity in the barrel cortex. 58(4): 309-320; Fox, K (2002) Anatomical pathways and molecular mechanisms for plasticity in the barrel cortex. Neuroscience, Neuroscience, 111(4): 799-814. 111(4): 799-814.

55 For instance, when mice are placed For instance, when mice are placed For a review of these studies see van Praag, H, Kempermann, G, Gage, FH (2000) Neural consequences of environmental enrichment. For a review of these studies see van Praag, H, Kempermann, G, Gage, FH (2000) Neural consequences of environmental enrichment. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 1(3): 191-198; Rosenzweig, MR, Bennett, EL (1996) Psychobiology of plasticity: effects of training and experience on brain and behavior. 1(3): 191-198; Rosenzweig, MR, Bennett, EL (1996) Psychobiology of plasticity: effects of training and experience on brain and behavior. Behavioral Brain Research, Behavioral Brain Research, 78(1): 57-65. 78(1): 57-65.

56 Rather, the preferences for certain Rather, the preferences for certain Victora, MD,Victora, CG, Barros, FC (1990) Cross-cultural differences in developmental rates: a comparison between British and Brazilian children. Victora, MD,Victora, CG, Barros, FC (1990) Cross-cultural differences in developmental rates: a comparison between British and Brazilian children. Child Care Health and Development, Child Care Health and Development, 6(3): 151-164; Chen, ST (1989) Comparison between the development of Malaysian and Denver children. 6(3): 151-164; Chen, ST (1989) Comparison between the development of Malaysian and Denver children. Journal of the Singapore Pediatric Society, Journal of the Singapore Pediatric Society, 31(3-4): 178-185; Lejarraga, H, Pascucci, MC, Krupitzky, S, Kelmansky, D, Bianco, A, Martinez, E,Tibaldi, F, Cameron, N, (2002) Psych.o.m.otor development in Argentinean children aged 0-5 years. 31(3-4): 178-185; Lejarraga, H, Pascucci, MC, Krupitzky, S, Kelmansky, D, Bianco, A, Martinez, E,Tibaldi, F, Cameron, N, (2002) Psych.o.m.otor development in Argentinean children aged 0-5 years. Pediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology, Pediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology, 16(1): 47-60. 16(1): 47-60.

57 Some recent studies have shown Some recent studies have shown Eriksson, PS (2003) Neurogenesis and its implications for regeneration in the adult brain. Eriksson, PS (2003) Neurogenesis and its implications for regeneration in the adult brain. Journal of Rehabilitative Medicine, Journal of Rehabilitative Medicine, (41 Suppl): 17-19; Kozorovitskiy, Y, Gould, E (2003) Adult neurogenesis: a mechanism for brain repair? (41 Suppl): 17-19; Kozorovitskiy, Y, Gould, E (2003) Adult neurogenesis: a mechanism for brain repair? Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 25(5): 721-732; Eisch,AJ (2002) Adult neurogenesis: implications for psychiatry. 25(5): 721-732; Eisch,AJ (2002) Adult neurogenesis: implications for psychiatry. Progress in Brain Research, Progress in Brain Research, 138: 315-342. 138: 315-342.

60 For instance, children who have delayed For instance, children who have delayed Rine, RM, Cornwall, G, Gan, K, LoCascio, C, O'Hare, T, Robinson, E, Rice, M (2000) Evidence of progressive delay of motor development in children with sensorineural hearing loss and concurrent vestibular dysfunction. Rine, RM, Cornwall, G, Gan, K, LoCascio, C, O'Hare, T, Robinson, E, Rice, M (2000) Evidence of progressive delay of motor development in children with sensorineural hearing loss and concurrent vestibular dysfunction. Perceptual and Motor Skills, Perceptual and Motor Skills, 90(3 Pt 2): 1101-1112. 90(3 Pt 2): 1101-1112.

60 The stress hormones The stress hormones See Wallenstein, GV (2003) See Wallenstein, GV (2003) Mind, Stress, and Emotions: The New Science of Mood Mind, Stress, and Emotions: The New Science of Mood. Commonwealth Press, Boston.

61 Moreover, animals that are given Moreover, animals that are given For review see Wallenstein, GV (2003) For review see Wallenstein, GV (2003) Mind, Stress, and Emotions: The New Science of Mood Mind, Stress, and Emotions: The New Science of Mood. Commonwealth Press, Boston; Gilmer,WS, McKinney,WT (2003) Early experience and depressive disorders: human and non-human primate studies. Journal of Affective Disorders, Journal of Affective Disorders, 75(2): 97-113. 75(2): 97-113.

61 For instance, gentle daily ma.s.sage For instance, gentle daily ma.s.sage For a review see Fleming, AS, O'Day, DH, Kraemer, GW (1999) Neurobiology of mother-infant interactions: experience and central nervous system plasticity across development and generations. For a review see Fleming, AS, O'Day, DH, Kraemer, GW (1999) Neurobiology of mother-infant interactions: experience and central nervous system plasticity across development and generations. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 23(5): 673-685; Carvell, GE, Simons, DJ (1996) Abnormal tactile experience early in life disrupts active touch. 23(5): 673-685; Carvell, GE, Simons, DJ (1996) Abnormal tactile experience early in life disrupts active touch. Journal of Neuroscience, Journal of Neuroscience, 16(8): 2750-2757. 16(8): 2750-2757.

61 Although there have not been many controlled Although there have not been many controlled See articles in Barnard, KE, Brazelton, TB (1990) See articles in Barnard, KE, Brazelton, TB (1990) Touch: The Foundation of Experience Touch: The Foundation of Experience. International University Press, Madison, CT.

62 The twin who received the motion The twin who received the motion For a comprehensive review of early studies see Ottenbacher, KJ, Petersen, P (1984) The efficacy of vestibular stimulation as a form of specific sensory enrichment. Quant.i.tative review of the literature. For a comprehensive review of early studies see Ottenbacher, KJ, Petersen, P (1984) The efficacy of vestibular stimulation as a form of specific sensory enrichment. Quant.i.tative review of the literature. Clinical Pediatrics (Phila.), Clinical Pediatrics (Phila.), 23(8): 428-433. 23(8): 428-433.

5 In Praise of Odors 65 This is true for humans, primates This is true for humans, primates Tanabe, T, Iino, M, Takagi, SF (1975) Discrimination of odors in olfactory bulb, pyriform-amygdaloid areas, and orbitofrontal cortex of the monkey. Tanabe, T, Iino, M, Takagi, SF (1975) Discrimination of odors in olfactory bulb, pyriform-amygdaloid areas, and orbitofrontal cortex of the monkey. Journal of Neurophysiology, Journal of Neurophysiology, 38: 1284-1296; Tanabe,T,Yarita, H, Iino, M, Oos.h.i.+ma, Y, Takagi, SF (1975) An olfactory projection area in orbitofrontal cortex of the monkey. 38: 1284-1296; Tanabe,T,Yarita, H, Iino, M, Oos.h.i.+ma, Y, Takagi, SF (1975) An olfactory projection area in orbitofrontal cortex of the monkey. Journal of Neurophysiology, Journal of Neurophysiology, 38: 1269-1283; Pritchard,TC, Hamilton, RB, Morse, JR, Norgren, R (1986) Projections of thalamic gustatory and lingual areas in the monkey, Macaca fascicularis. 38: 1269-1283; Pritchard,TC, Hamilton, RB, Morse, JR, Norgren, R (1986) Projections of thalamic gustatory and lingual areas in the monkey, Macaca fascicularis. Journal of Comparative Neurology, Journal of Comparative Neurology, 244: 213-228; Zatorre, RJ, Jones-Gotman, M, Evans,AC, Meyers, E (1992) Functional localization and lateralization of human olfactory cortex. 244: 213-228; Zatorre, RJ, Jones-Gotman, M, Evans,AC, Meyers, E (1992) Functional localization and lateralization of human olfactory cortex. Nature, Nature, 60: 339-340. 60: 339-340.

65 Experiments have shown that when humans Experiments have shown that when humans Zatorre, RJ, Jones-Gotman, M, Evans, AC, Meyers, E (1992) Functional localization and lateralization of human olfactory cortex. Zatorre, RJ, Jones-Gotman, M, Evans, AC, Meyers, E (1992) Functional localization and lateralization of human olfactory cortex. Nature, Nature, 60: 339-340; Small, DM, Jones-Gotman, M, Zatorre, RJ, Petrides, M, Evans, AC (1997) A role for the right anterior temporal lobe in taste quality recognition. 60: 339-340; Small, DM, Jones-Gotman, M, Zatorre, RJ, Petrides, M, Evans, AC (1997) A role for the right anterior temporal lobe in taste quality recognition. Journal of Neuroscience, Journal of Neuroscience, 17: 5136-5142; Small, DM, Jones-Gotman, M, Zatorre, RJ, Petrides, M, Evans, AC (1997) Flavor processing: more than the sum of its parts. 17: 5136-5142; Small, DM, Jones-Gotman, M, Zatorre, RJ, Petrides, M, Evans, AC (1997) Flavor processing: more than the sum of its parts. Neuroreport, Neuroreport, 8: 3913-3917. 8: 3913-3917.

66 In her book In her book A Natural History Ackerman, D (1991) A Natural History Ackerman, D (1991) A Natural History of the Senses A Natural History of the Senses. Vintage Books, New York.

66 One theory suggests that during the Devonian One theory suggests that during the Devonian Watson, L (2000) Watson, L (2000) Jacobson's Organ and the Remarkable Nature of Smell Jacobson's Organ and the Remarkable Nature of Smell. W. W. Norton & Company, New York.

69 By the twenty-eighth week, Kai's placenta By the twenty-eighth week, Kai's placenta Psychologist Julie Mennella first tested this idea by taking amniotic fluid samples from women who were undergoing a routine amniocentesis and had ingested either garlic or placebo capsules approximately forty-five minutes before the procedure.The odor of the amniotic fluid from women who consumed garlic was judged, by independent evaluators, as smelling stronger and more like garlic than the fluid from those who consumed only saline (Mennella, JA, Johnson,A, Beuchamp, GK [1995] Garlic ingestion by pregnant women alters the odor of amniotic fluid. Psychologist Julie Mennella first tested this idea by taking amniotic fluid samples from women who were undergoing a routine amniocentesis and had ingested either garlic or placebo capsules approximately forty-five minutes before the procedure.The odor of the amniotic fluid from women who consumed garlic was judged, by independent evaluators, as smelling stronger and more like garlic than the fluid from those who consumed only saline (Mennella, JA, Johnson,A, Beuchamp, GK [1995] Garlic ingestion by pregnant women alters the odor of amniotic fluid. Chemical Senses, Chemical Senses, 20: 207). 20: 207).

69 In fact, scientists have speculated that odor In fact, scientists have speculated that odor Eliot, L (2000) Eliot, L (2000) What's Going on in There? How the Brain and Mind Develop in the First Five Years of Life What's Going on in There? How the Brain and Mind Develop in the First Five Years of Life. Bantam Books, New York.

70 Injections of simple saline solution Injections of simple saline solution Smotherman, WP, Robinson, SR (1988) Behavior of rat fetuses following chemical or tactile stimulation. Smotherman, WP, Robinson, SR (1988) Behavior of rat fetuses following chemical or tactile stimulation. Behavioral Neuroscience, Behavioral Neuroscience, 102: 24-34. 102: 24-34.

70 After birth, the rats that were exposed After birth, the rats that were exposed Pedersen, PE, Bla.s.s, EM (1982) Prenatal and postnatal determinants of the first sucking episode in albino rats. Pedersen, PE, Bla.s.s, EM (1982) Prenatal and postnatal determinants of the first sucking episode in albino rats. Development Psychobiology, Development Psychobiology, 15: 349-355. 15: 349-355.

70 If their amniotic fluid is scented If their amniotic fluid is scented Smotherman,WP (1982) Odor aversion learning by the rat fetus. Smotherman,WP (1982) Odor aversion learning by the rat fetus. Physiology and Behavior, Physiology and Behavior, 29: 769-771. 29: 769-771.

70 Experiments performed in culturally diverse Experiments performed in culturally diverse Varendi, H, et al. (1996) Attractiveness of amniotic fluid odor: evidence of prenatal olfactory learning? Varendi, H, et al. (1996) Attractiveness of amniotic fluid odor: evidence of prenatal olfactory learning? Acta Paediatrica, Acta Paediatrica, 85: 1223-1227. 85: 1223-1227.

71 Newborns also cry less and show Newborns also cry less and show Varendi, H, et al. (1998) Soothing effect of amniotic fluid smell in newborn infants. Varendi, H, et al. (1998) Soothing effect of amniotic fluid smell in newborn infants. Early Human Development, Early Human Development, 51: 47-55. 51: 47-55.

71 Within hours after birth, a breast-fed Within hours after birth, a breast-fed Schaal, B (1988) Olfaction in infants and children: development and functional perspectives. Schaal, B (1988) Olfaction in infants and children: development and functional perspectives. Chemical Senses, Chemical Senses, 13: 145. 13: 145.

71 Infants born to anise-consuming Infants born to anise-consuming Schaal, B, Marlier, L, Soussigan, R (2000) Human fetuses learn odours from their pregnant mother's diet. Schaal, B, Marlier, L, Soussigan, R (2000) Human fetuses learn odours from their pregnant mother's diet. Chemical Senses, Chemical Senses, 25: 729-737. 25: 729-737.

72 Researchers have found that newborns Researchers have found that newborns Mennella, JA, Beauchamp, GK (1991) Olfactory preferences in children and adults. In Mennella, JA, Beauchamp, GK (1991) Olfactory preferences in children and adults. In The Human Sense of Smell, The Human Sense of Smell, Lang, D, Dory, RL, Breipohl, W (eds.). Springer-Verlag, NY. Lang, D, Dory, RL, Breipohl, W (eds.). Springer-Verlag, NY.

72 Some of the most popular smells include strawberry Some of the most popular smells include strawberry Schmidt, HJ, Beauchamp, GK (1988) Adult-like preferences and aversions in three-year-old children. Schmidt, HJ, Beauchamp, GK (1988) Adult-like preferences and aversions in three-year-old children. Child Development, Child Development, 59: 1138. 59: 1138.

74 Within four months Within four months Russell, MJ, et al. (1980) Olfactory influences on the human menstrual cycle. Russell, MJ, et al. (1980) Olfactory influences on the human menstrual cycle. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior, Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior, 13: 737. 13: 737.

74 The answer came The answer came Empson, J (1977) Periodicity in body temperature in man. Empson, J (1977) Periodicity in body temperature in man. Experientia, Experientia, 33: 342. 33: 342.

77 Each person tested was brought Each person tested was brought Wedekind, C, Furi, S (1997) Body odour preferences in men and women: do they aim for specific MHC combinations or simply heterozygosity? Wedekind, C, Furi, S (1997) Body odour preferences in men and women: do they aim for specific MHC combinations or simply heterozygosity? Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B Biological Sciences, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B Biological Sciences, 22: 1471-1479. 22: 1471-1479.

77 In 2001,Wedekind's group In 2001,Wedekind's group Milinski, M, Wedekind, C (2001) Evidence for MHC-CORRELATED perfume preferences in humans. Milinski, M, Wedekind, C (2001) Evidence for MHC-CORRELATED perfume preferences in humans. Behavioral Ecology, Behavioral Ecology, 12: 140-149. 12: 140-149.

6 For the Love of Chocolate 80 Spouted, teapot-shaped vessels Spouted, teapot-shaped vessels Hurst,WJ,Tarka, SM Jr., Powis,TG,Valdez, F Jr., Hester,TR (2002) Cacao usage by the earliest Maya civilization. Hurst,WJ,Tarka, SM Jr., Powis,TG,Valdez, F Jr., Hester,TR (2002) Cacao usage by the earliest Maya civilization. Nature, Nature, 418: 289-290. 418: 289-290.

82 Placing a small amount of liquid Placing a small amount of liquid Barr, RG et al. (1994) Effects of intra-oral sucrose on crying, mouthing, and hand-mouth contact in newborn and six-week-old infants. Barr, RG et al. (1994) Effects of intra-oral sucrose on crying, mouthing, and hand-mouth contact in newborn and six-week-old infants. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 36: 608. 36: 608.

82 The key to unraveling this mystery The key to unraveling this mystery di Tomaso, E, Beltramo, M, Piomelli, D (1996) Brain cannibinoids in chocolate. di Tomaso, E, Beltramo, M, Piomelli, D (1996) Brain cannibinoids in chocolate. Nature, Nature, 382: 677-678. 382: 677-678.

84 In a very real sense, the opioid In a very real sense, the opioid Molecular evidence has shown that the opioid system is highly conserved across anatomically diverse species and hence very old within the framework of hominid evolution. For instance, the gene sequence that codes the development of mu opioid receptors is essentially the same in humans, bovine chickens, bullfrogs, striped ba.s.s, thresher sharks, and the Pacific hagfish (Li, X, Keith, DE, Evans, CJ [1996] Mu opioid receptorlike sequences are present throughout vertebrate evolution. Molecular evidence has shown that the opioid system is highly conserved across anatomically diverse species and hence very old within the framework of hominid evolution. For instance, the gene sequence that codes the development of mu opioid receptors is essentially the same in humans, bovine chickens, bullfrogs, striped ba.s.s, thresher sharks, and the Pacific hagfish (Li, X, Keith, DE, Evans, CJ [1996] Mu opioid receptorlike sequences are present throughout vertebrate evolution. Journal of Molecular Evolution, Journal of Molecular Evolution, 43: 179-184.) 43: 179-184.) 84 Study after study has shown that in humans Study after study has shown that in humans For examples, see Facchinetti, F et al. (1986) Hyperendorphinemia in obesity and relations.h.i.+ps to affective state. For examples, see Facchinetti, F et al. (1986) Hyperendorphinemia in obesity and relations.h.i.+ps to affective state. Physiology and Behavior, Physiology and Behavior, 36: 937-940; Melchior, JC, et al. (1991) Immunoreactive beta-endorphin increases after an aspartame chocolate drink in healthy subjects. 36: 937-940; Melchior, JC, et al. (1991) Immunoreactive beta-endorphin increases after an aspartame chocolate drink in healthy subjects. Physiology and Behavior, Physiology and Behavior, 50: 941-944. 50: 941-944.

85 At least two independent studies have found that obese At least two independent studies have found that obese Facchinetti, F, et al. (1986) Hyperendorphinemia in obesity and relations.h.i.+ps to affective state. Facchinetti, F, et al. (1986) Hyperendorphinemia in obesity and relations.h.i.+ps to affective state. Physiology and Behavior, Physiology and Behavior, 36: 937-940; Scavo, D, et al. (1990) Hyperendorphinemia in obesity is not related to affective state. 36: 937-940; Scavo, D, et al. (1990) Hyperendorphinemia in obesity is not related to affective state. Physiology and Behavior, Physiology and Behavior, 48: 681-683. 48: 681-683.

85 Hence, attachment behaviors depend on opioid Hence, attachment behaviors depend on opioid Moles, A, Kieffer, BL, D'Amato, FR (2004) Deficit in attachment behavior in mice lacking the mu-opioid receptor gene. Moles, A, Kieffer, BL, D'Amato, FR (2004) Deficit in attachment behavior in mice lacking the mu-opioid receptor gene. Science, Science, 304: 1983-1986. 304: 1983-1986.

87 These include tongue protrusions to reject These include tongue protrusions to reject Steiner, JE (1973) The gustofacial response: Observation on normal and anencephalic newborn infants. In Steiner, JE (1973) The gustofacial response: Observation on normal and anencephalic newborn infants. In Fourth Symposium on Oral Sensation and Perception Fourth Symposium on Oral Sensation and Perception. JF Bosma (ed.), U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Bethesda, MD.

88 Studies performed during this time show that fetuses Studies performed during this time show that fetuses Mistretta, CM, Bradley, RM (1975) Taste and swallowing in utero: a discussion of fetal sensory function. Mistretta, CM, Bradley, RM (1975) Taste and swallowing in utero: a discussion of fetal sensory function. British Medical Bulletin, British Medical Bulletin, 31: 80-84. 31: 80-84.

88 Likewise, rats born to mothers who consume Likewise, rats born to mothers who consume The implications of this learning process for understanding and treating addiction will be discussed in chapter 9. The implications of this learning process for understanding and treating addiction will be discussed in chapter 9.

89 But this has changed with the discovery that simply putting a fatty But this has changed with the discovery that simply putting a fatty Mattes, RD (2001) The taste of fat elevates postprandial triacylglycerol. Mattes, RD (2001) The taste of fat elevates postprandial triacylglycerol. Physiology and Behavior, Physiology and Behavior, 74: 343-348. 74: 343-348.

90 These findings are probably no surprise These findings are probably no surprise Drewnowski, A, Greenwood, MR (1983) Cream and sugar: human preferences for high-fat foods. Drewnowski, A, Greenwood, MR (1983) Cream and sugar: human preferences for high-fat foods. Physiology and Behavior, Physiology and Behavior, 30: 629-633. 30: 629-633.

90 Michael Crawford of the Inst.i.tute Michael Crawford of the Inst.i.tute Cunnane, SC, Crawford, MA (2003) Survival of the fattest: fat babies were the key to evolution of the large human brain. Cunnane, SC, Crawford, MA (2003) Survival of the fattest: fat babies were the key to evolution of the large human brain. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, 136(1): 17-26. 136(1): 17-26.

92 They suggest the most dramatic increase They suggest the most dramatic increase Ibid. Ibid.

92 For instance, both ALA and LA For instance, both ALA and LA For a review, see Bourre, JM (2004) Roles of unsaturated fatty acids (especially omega-3 fatty acids) in the brain at various ages and during aging. For a review, see Bourre, JM (2004) Roles of unsaturated fatty acids (especially omega-3 fatty acids) in the brain at various ages and during aging. Journal of Nutrition, Health, and Aging, Journal of Nutrition, Health, and Aging, 8(3): 163-174. 8(3): 163-174.

92 Another study showed that ALA Another study showed that ALA Ibid. Ibid.

93 It is known that humans and other animals It is known that humans and other animals See, for example, Imaizumi, M, Takeda, M, Sawano, S, Fus.h.i.+ki, T (2001) Opioidergic contribution to conditioned place preference induced by corn oil in mice. See, for example, Imaizumi, M, Takeda, M, Sawano, S, Fus.h.i.+ki, T (2001) Opioidergic contribution to conditioned place preference induced by corn oil in mice. Behavioral Brain Research, Behavioral Brain Research, 121(1-2): 129-136. 121(1-2): 129-136.

93 For instance, if LA and sucrose For instance, if LA and sucrose Gilbertson, TA (1999) The taste of fat. In Gilbertson, TA (1999) The taste of fat. In Pennington Center Nutrition Series: Nutrition, Genetics, and Obesity Pennington Center Nutrition Series: Nutrition, Genetics, and Obesity. Louisiana State University Press, Baton Rouge, 192-207.

93 In a series of behavioral experiments In a series of behavioral experiments Herzog, P, McCormack, DN,Webster, KL, Pittman, DW (2003) Linoleic acid alters licking responses to sweet, sour, and salt tastants in rats. Abstract, 25th Annual Meeting of the a.s.sociation for Chemoreception Sciences. Herzog, P, McCormack, DN,Webster, KL, Pittman, DW (2003) Linoleic acid alters licking responses to sweet, sour, and salt tastants in rats. Abstract, 25th Annual Meeting of the a.s.sociation for Chemoreception Sciences.

93 Likewise, when Pittman's rats Likewise, when Pittman's rats Ibid. Ibid.

7 The Evolution of the Lullaby 97 Indeed, given the omnipresence of music Indeed, given the omnipresence of music Hauser, MD, McDermott, J (2003) The evolution of the music faculty: a comparative perspective. Hauser, MD, McDermott, J (2003) The evolution of the music faculty: a comparative perspective. Nature Neuroscience, Nature Neuroscience, 6(7): 663-668;Trehub, SE (2003) The developmental origins of music. 6(7): 663-668;Trehub, SE (2003) The developmental origins of music. Nature Neuroscience, Nature Neuroscience, 6(7): 669-673; Miller, GF (2000) Evolution of human music through s.e.xual selection. In Wallin, NL, Merker, B, Brown, S (eds.) (2001), 6(7): 669-673; Miller, GF (2000) Evolution of human music through s.e.xual selection. In Wallin, NL, Merker, B, Brown, S (eds.) (2001), The Origins of Music The Origins of Music. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 329-360.

98 The first group views music as an interesting The first group views music as an interesting Pinker, S (1994) Pinker, S (1994) The Language Instinct: How the Mind Creates Language The Language Instinct: How the Mind Creates Language. William Morrow & Company, New York; Pinker, S (1997) How the Mind Works How the Mind Works.W. W. Norton & Company, New York.

98 This view, however, has its problems This view, however, has its problems Williams, GC (1966) Williams, GC (1966) Adaptation and Natural Selection Adaptation and Natural Selection. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.

98 Finally, a third school of thought Finally, a third school of thought Miller, GF (2000) Miller, GF (2000) The Mating Mind The Mating Mind. Doubleday, New York; Levitan, DJ (2006) This Is Your Brain on Music This Is Your Brain on Music. Dutton, New York ; Mithen, S (2006) The Singing Neanderthals: The Origins of Music, Language, Mind, and Body The Singing Neanderthals: The Origins of Music, Language, Mind, and Body. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.

99 Indeed, adaptations driven by s.e.xual Indeed, adaptations driven by s.e.xual Zahavi, A (1997) Zahavi, A (1997) The Handicap Principle The Handicap Principle. Oxford University Press, Oxford, England.

100 This has led some theorists to focus on the similarities This has led some theorists to focus on the similarities Patel, AD (1998) Syntactic processing in language and music: Different cognitive operations, similar neural resources? Patel, AD (1998) Syntactic processing in language and music: Different cognitive operations, similar neural resources? Music Perception, Music Perception, 16: 27-42;Trehub, SE (2003) The developmental origins of musicality. 16: 27-42;Trehub, SE (2003) The developmental origins of musicality. Nature Neuroscience, Nature Neuroscience, 6: 669-673. 6: 669-673.

100 They viewed music as being built from a hierarchy They viewed music as being built from a hierarchy Lerdahl, F, Jackendoff, R (1983) Lerdahl, F, Jackendoff, R (1983) A Generative Theory of Tonal Music A Generative Theory of Tonal Music. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.

102 They also discriminate two melodies They also discriminate two melodies Sch.e.l.lenberg, EG, Trehub, SE (1996) Natural musical intervals: evidence from infant listeners. Sch.e.l.lenberg, EG, Trehub, SE (1996) Natural musical intervals: evidence from infant listeners. Psychological Science, Psychological Science, 7: 272-277. 7: 272-277.

103 To date, this experiment has only been performed with rhesus To date, this experiment has only been performed with rhesus Trainor, LJ, Trehub, SE (1993) What mediates infants' and adults' superior processing of the major over the augmented triad? Trainor, LJ, Trehub, SE (1993) What mediates infants' and adults' superior processing of the major over the augmented triad? Music Perception, Music Perception, 11: 185-196. 11: 185-196.

104 Practically everyone agrees on what is Practically everyone agrees on what is Trehub, SE, Unyk, AM, Trainor, LJ (1993) Adults identify infant-directed music across cultures. Trehub, SE, Unyk, AM, Trainor, LJ (1993) Adults identify infant-directed music across cultures. Infant Behavioral Development, Infant Behavioral Development, 16: 193-211. 16: 193-211.

105 Interestingly, the abnormalities persisted Interestingly, the abnormalities persisted Chang, EF, Merzenich, MM (2003) Environmental noise r.e.t.a.r.ds auditory cortical development. Chang, EF, Merzenich, MM (2003) Environmental noise r.e.t.a.r.ds auditory cortical development. Science, Science, 300: 498-502. 300: 498-502.

105 And when it finally gets them And when it finally gets them Howard Hughes Medical Inst.i.tute Newsletter (2003)-available online at Howard Hughes Medical Inst.i.tute Newsletter (2003)-available online at http://www.hhmi.org//news/chang.html.

107 Research has shown that fetuses older Research has shown that fetuses older Shahidullah, BS, Hepper, PG (1994) Frequency discrimination by the fetus. Shahidullah, BS, Hepper, PG (1994) Frequency discrimination by the fetus. Early Human Development, Early Human Development, 36: 13-26. 36: 13-26.

108 Indeed, it is now clear that the sounds a fetus Indeed, it is now clear that the sounds a fetus Hepper, PG (1988) Fetal "soap" addiction. Hepper, PG (1988) Fetal "soap" addiction. Lancet, Lancet, June: 1347-1348. June: 1347-1348.

8 In Search of Pretty Things 114 In early primates this high concentration In early primates this high concentration Neurobiologist John Allman was the first to point out this s.h.i.+ft from olfactory to visual dominance that occurred with the evolution of primates. For a description, see Allman, J (1977) Evolution of the visual system in early primates. In Neurobiologist John Allman was the first to point out this s.h.i.+ft from olfactory to visual dominance that occurred with the evolution of primates. For a description, see Allman, J (1977) Evolution of the visual system in early primates. In Progress in Psychobiology and Physiological Psychology, Progress in Psychobiology and Physiological Psychology, ed. Sprague, J and Epstein A. Academic Press, New York, 1-53. ed. Sprague, J and Epstein A. Academic Press, New York, 1-53.

115 Evolutionary biologists have argued Evolutionary biologists have argued Cartmill, M (1972) Arboreal adaptations and the origin of the order primates. In Cartmill, M (1972) Arboreal adaptations and the origin of the order primates. In The Functional and Evolutionary Biology of Primates, The Functional and Evolutionary Biology of Primates, ed. Tuttle, R. Aldine-Atherton Press, Chicago, 97-212; Martin, R (1990) ed. Tuttle, R. Aldine-Atherton Press, Chicago, 97-212; Martin, R (1990) Primate Origins and Evolution: A Phylogenetic Reconstruction Primate Origins and Evolution: A Phylogenetic Reconstruction. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.

115 This process resulted in a higher density This process resulted in a higher density Nathans, J (1989) Genes for color vision. Nathans, J (1989) Genes for color vision. Scientific American, Scientific American, 260: 42-49. 260: 42-49.

115 Recent work has shown that the advance from dichromacy Recent work has shown that the advance from dichromacy Osorio, D, Vorobyev, M (1996) Colour vision as an adaptation to frugivory in primates. Osorio, D, Vorobyev, M (1996) Colour vision as an adaptation to frugivory in primates. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, B, 263: 593-599. B, 263: 593-599.

118 The latter stream is known as the "what" The latter stream is known as the "what" Ungerleider, LG, Haxby, JV (1994) "What" and "where" in the human brain. Ungerleider, LG, Haxby, JV (1994) "What" and "where" in the human brain. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 4 157-165. 4 157-165.

120 If these cells are damaged in an adult If these cells are damaged in an adult Damasio, A, Yamada, T, Damasio, H, Corbett, J, McKee, J (1980) Central achromatopsia: behavioral, anatomic, and physiologic aspects. Damasio, A, Yamada, T, Damasio, H, Corbett, J, McKee, J (1980) Central achromatopsia: behavioral, anatomic, and physiologic aspects. Neurology, Neurology, 30: 1064-1071. 30: 1064-1071.

121 Experimental evidence shows that multiple cells from V1 Experimental evidence shows that multiple cells from V1 Felleman DJ, Xiao Y, McClendon E (1997) Modular organization of occipito-temporal pathways: cortical connections between visual area 4 and visual area 2 and posterior inferotemporal ventral area in macaque monkeys. Felleman DJ, Xiao Y, McClendon E (1997) Modular organization of occipito-temporal pathways: cortical connections between visual area 4 and visual area 2 and posterior inferotemporal ventral area in macaque monkeys. Journal of Neuroscience, Journal of Neuroscience, 17(9): 3185-200. 17(9): 3185-200.

123 For instance, at least one study has demonstrated that For instance, at least one study has demonstrated that Annis, RC, Frost, B (1973) Human visual ecology and orientation anisotropies in acuity. Annis, RC, Frost, B (1973) Human visual ecology and orientation anisotropies in acuity. Science, Science, 182: 729-731. 182: 729-731.

126 In the parlance of evolutionary biology In the parlance of evolutionary biology Ryan, MJ (1998) s.e.xual selection, receiver biases, and the evolution of s.e.x differences. Ryan, MJ (1998) s.e.xual selection, receiver biases, and the evolution of s.e.x differences. Science, Science, 281: 1999-2003. 281: 1999-2003.

126 There are compelling examples where a physical There are compelling examples where a physical For example, see Ryan, MJ (1998) s.e.xual selection, receiver biases, and the evolution of s.e.x differences. For example, see Ryan, MJ (1998) s.e.xual selection, receiver biases, and the evolution of s.e.x differences. Science, Science, 281: 1999-2003. 281: 1999-2003.

127 Rather, stimulation of the frog's Rather, stimulation of the frog's Ibid. Ibid.

127 s.e.xual selection is often used as a theoretical s.e.xual selection is often used as a theoretical For example, see Ridley, M (2003) For example, see Ridley, M (2003) The Red Queen: s.e.x and Evolution of Human Nature The Red Queen: s.e.x and Evolution of Human Nature. HarperPerennial, New York; Miller, G (2001) The Mating Mind: How s.e.xual Choice Shaped the Evolution of Human Nature The Mating Mind: How s.e.xual Choice Shaped the Evolution of Human Nature. Anchor Books, New York; Buss, D (1995) The Evolution of Desire: Strategies of Human Mating The Evolution of Desire: Strategies of Human Mating. Basic Books, New York.

127 The pioneering biologist Amotz The pioneering biologist Amotz Zahavi, A, Zahavi, A (1997) Zahavi, A, Zahavi, A (1997) The Handicap Princ.i.p.al: A Missing Piece of Darwin's Puzzle The Handicap Princ.i.p.al: A Missing Piece of Darwin's Puzzle. Oxford University Press, Oxford, England.

128 However, many of these "improvements" However, many of these "improvements" Miller, G (2001) Miller, G (2001) The Mating Mind: How s.e.xual Choice Shaped the Evolution of Human Nature The Mating Mind: How s.e.xual Choice Shaped the Evolution of Human Nature. Anchor Books, New York.

128 Although there is notable cultural Although there is notable cultural For an entertaining review, see Etcoff, N (2000) For an entertaining review, see Etcoff, N (2000) Survival of the Prettiest Survival of the Prettiest. Anchor Books, New York.

129 Babies who have an innate fondness for faces Babies who have an innate fondness for faces Thornhill, R, Gangestad, SW (1993) Human facial beauty: averageness, symmetry, and parasite resistance. Thornhill, R, Gangestad, SW (1993) Human facial beauty: averageness, symmetry, and parasite resistance. Human Nature, Human Nature, 4: 237-269. 4: 237-269.

9 Pleasure from Proportion and Symmetry 138 The English geneticist Angus The English geneticist Angus Bateman, A J 1948. Intra-s.e.xual selection in Drosophila. Bateman, A J 1948. Intra-s.e.xual selection in Drosophila. Heredity Heredity 2: 349-368. 2: 349-368.

138 Women produce approximately four hundred Women produce approximately four hundred Williams, GC (1975) Williams, GC (1975) s.e.x and Evolution s.e.x and Evolution. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.

139 We can find some help here in the work We can find some help here in the work Hamilton,WD, Zuk, M (1982) Heritable true fitness and bright birds: a role for parasites? Hamilton,WD, Zuk, M (1982) Heritable true fitness and bright birds: a role for parasites? Science Science 218: 384-387. 218: 384-387.

140 Either way, it has been shown Either way, it has been shown The best book to find examples of this is the first, Darwin, C, The best book to find examples of this is the first, Darwin, C, The Descent of Man The Descent of Man.

140 Indeed, the handicap principle Indeed, the handicap principle Zahavi, A (1975) Mate selection: A selection for a handicap. Zahavi, A (1975) Mate selection: A selection for a handicap. Journal of Theoretical Biology, Journal of Theoretical Biology, 53: 205-214. 53: 205-214.

142 Plato and Plotinus wrote extensively Plato and Plotinus wrote extensively Hofstader, A, Kuhns, R (eds.) (1964) Hofstader, A, Kuhns, R (eds.) (1964) Philosophies of Art and Beauty: Selected Readings in Aesthetics from Plato to Heidegger Philosophies of Art and Beauty: Selected Readings in Aesthetics from Plato to Heidegger. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.

144 Body shape is driven by the distribution Body shape is driven by the distribution Singh, D (2002) Female mate value at a glance: Relations.h.i.+p of waist-to-hip ratio to health, fecundity, and attractiveness. Singh, D (2002) Female mate value at a glance: Relations.h.i.+p of waist-to-hip ratio to health, fecundity, and attractiveness. Neuroendocrinology Letters, Neuroendocrinology Letters, 23(4); 81-91. 23(4); 81-91.

144 Increased testosterone in postp.u.b.ertal boys Increased testosterone in postp.u.b.ertal boys Bjorntorp, P (1991) Adipose tissue distribution and function. Bjorntorp, P (1991) Adipose tissue distribution and function. International Journal of Obesity, International Journal of Obesity, 15: 67-81. 15: 67-81.

144 Healthy premenopausal women typically Healthy premenopausal women typically Singh, D (1993a) Adaptive significance of female physical attractiveness: role of waist-to-hip ratio. Singh, D (1993a) Adaptive significance of female physical attractiveness: role of waist-to-hip ratio. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65: 292-307. 65: 292-307.

145 In the early 1990s, psychologist Devendra In the early 1990s, psychologist Devendra Ibid. Ibid.

145 The drawings seen as least attractive The drawings seen as least attractive Ibid. Singh, D. (1993b) Body shape and women's attractiveness:The critical role of waist-to-hip ratio. Ibid. Singh, D. (1993b) Body shape and women's attractiveness:The critical role of waist-to-hip ratio. Human Nature, Human Nature, 4: 297-321. 4: 297-321.

146 For these variables, positive rankings For these variables, positive rankings Singh, D, Luis, S (1995) Ethnic and gender consensus for the effects of waist-to-hip ratio on judgement of women's attractiveness. Singh, D, Luis, S (1995) Ethnic and gender consensus for the effects of waist-to-hip ratio on judgement of women's attractiveness. Human Nature, Human Nature, 6: 51-65; Singh, D (2004) Mating strategies of young women: role of physical attractiveness. 6: 51-65; Singh, D (2004) Mating strategies of young women: role of physical attractiveness. The Journal of s.e.x Research, The Journal of s.e.x Research, 41: 43-54. 41: 43-54.

146 Granted, but this is unlikely Granted, but this is unlikely Ibid., Singh, Luis; ibid., Singh, D. Ibid., Singh, Luis; ibid., Singh, D.

146 The cla.s.sic beauties Marilyn Monroe The cla.s.sic beauties Marilyn Monroe Etcoff, N (1999) Etcoff, N (1999) Survival of the Prettiest: The Science of Beauty Survival of the Prettiest: The Science of Beauty. Anchor Books, New York.

147 Women with WHR lower than .8 have a significantly Women with WHR lower than .8 have a significantly Singh, D (1993a); Singh, D (2002). Singh, D (1993a); Singh, D (2002).

147 Women with WHRs below .8 are also significantly more likely Women with WHRs below .8 are also significantly more likely Ibid., Singh, D; Ibid., Singh, D. Ibid., Singh, D; Ibid., Singh, D.

148 One important marker of phenotypic One important marker of phenotypic Scheib, JE, Gangestad, SW, Thornhill, R (1999) Facial attractiveness, symmetry and cues of good genes. Scheib, JE, Gangestad, SW, Thornhill, R (1999) Facial attractiveness, symmetry and cues of good genes. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B, 266: 1913-1917; Gangestad, SW, Thornhill, R, Yeo, RA. (1994) Facial attractiveness, developmental stability, and fluctuating asymmetry. 266: 1913-1917; Gangestad, SW, Thornhill, R, Yeo, RA. (1994) Facial attractiveness, developmental stability, and fluctuating asymmetry. Ethology and Sociobiology, Ethology and Sociobiology, 15: 73-85; Moller, AP,Thornhill, R (1998) Bilateral symmetry and s.e.xual selection: A meta-a.n.a.lysis. 15: 73-85; Moller, AP,Thornhill, R (1998) Bilateral symmetry and s.e.xual selection: A meta-a.n.a.lysis. American Naturalist, American Naturalist, 151: 174-192. 151: 174-192.