The Student's Elements of Geology Part 55

(FIGURE 514. Cyathophyllum caespitosum, Goldf.; Plymouth and Ilfracombe.

b. A terminal star.

c. Vertical section, exhibiting transverse plates, and part of another branch.)

We come next to the most typical portion of the Devonian system, including the great limestones of Plymouth and Torbay, replete with sh.e.l.ls, trilobites, and corals. Of the corals 51 species are enumerated by Mr. Etheridge, none of which pa.s.s into the Carboniferous formation. Among the genera we find Favosites, Heliolites, and Cyathophyllum. The two former genera are very frequent in Silurian rocks: some few even of the species are said to be common to the Devonian and Silurian groups, as, for example, Favosites cervicornis (Figure 513), one of the commonest of all the Devons.h.i.+re fossils. The Cyathophyllum caespitosum (Figure 514) and Heliolites pyriformis (Figure 512) are species peculiar to this formation.

(FIGURE 515. Stringocephalus Burtini, Def.

a. Valves united.

b. Interior of ventral or large valve, showing thick part.i.tion and portion of a large process which projects from the dorsal valve across the sh.e.l.l.)

(FIGURE 516. Uncites Gryphus, Def. Middle Devonian. S. Devon and the Continent.)

With the above are found no less than eleven genera of stone-lilies or crinoids, some of them, such as Cupressocrinites, distinct from any Carboniferous forms.

The mollusks, also, are no less characteristic; of 68 species of Brachiopoda, ten only are common to the Carboniferous Limestone. The Stringocephalus Burtini (Figure 515) and Uncites Gryphus (Figure 516) may be mentioned as exclusively Middle Devonian genera, and extremely characteristic of the same division in Belgium. The Stringocephalus is also so abundant in the Middle Devonian of the banks of the Rhine as to have suggested the name of Stringocephalus Limestone.

The only two species of Brachiopoda common to the Silurian and Devonian formations are Atrypa reticularis (Figure 532), which seems to have been a cosmopolite species, and Strophomena rhomboidalis.

(FIGURE 517. Megalodon cucullatus, Sowerby. Eifel; also Bradley, S. Devon.

a. The valves united.

b. Interior of valve, showing the large cardinal tooth.)

(FIGURE 518. Conularia ornata, D'Arch. and De Vern. (Geological Transactions Sec. Ser. volume 6. Plate 29.) Refrath, near Cologne.)

(FIGURE 519. Bronteus flabellifer, Goldf. Mid. Devon; S. Devon; and the Eifel.)

Among the peculiar lamellibranchiate bivalves common to the Plymouth limestone of Devons.h.i.+re and the Continent, we find the Megalodon (Figure 517). There are also twelve genera of Gasteropods which have yielded 36 species, four of which pa.s.s to the Carboniferous group, namely Macrocheilus, Acroculia, Euomphalus, and Murchisonia. Pteropods occur, such as Conularia (Figure 518), and Cephalopods, such as Cyrtoceras, Gyroceras, Orthoceras, and others, nearly all of genera distinct from those prevailing in the Upper Devonian Limestone, or Clymenien- kalk of the Germans already mentioned. Although but few species of Trilobites occur, the characteristic Bronteus flabellifer (Figure 519) is far from rare, and all collectors are familiar with its fan-like tail. In this same group, called, as before stated, the Stringocephalus, or Eifel Limestone, in Germany, several fish remains have been detected, and among others the remarkable genus Coccosteus, covered with its tuberculated bony armour; and these ichthyolites serve, as Sir R. Murchison observes (Siluria page 362), to identify this middle marine Devonian with the Old Red Sandstone of Britain and Russia.

(FIGURE 520. Calceola sandalina, Lam. Eifel; also South Devon.

a. Ventral valve.

b. Inner side of dorsal valve.)

Beneath the Eifel Limestone (the great central and typical member of "the Devonian" on the Continent) lie certain schists called by German writers "Calceola-schiefer," because they contain in abundance a fossil body of very curious structure, Calceola sandalina (Figure 520), which has been usually considered a brachiopod, but which some naturalists have lately referred to a Goniophyllum, supposing it to be an abnormal form of the order Zoantharia rugosa (see Figure 474), differing from all other corals in being furnished with a strong operculum. This is by no means a rare fossil in the slaty limestone of South Devon, and, like the Eifel form, is confined to the middle group of this country.

LOWER DEVONIAN ROCKS.

(FIGURE 521. Spirifera mucronata, Hall. Devonian of Pennsylvania.)

A great series of sandstones and glossy slates, with Crinoids, Brachiopods, and some corals, occurring on the coast at Lynmouth and the neighbourhood, and called the Lynton Group (see Table 25.1), form the lowest member of the Devonian in North Devon. Among the 18 species of all cla.s.ses enumerated by Mr. Etheridge, two-thirds are common to the Middle Devonian, but only one, the ubiquitous Atrypa reticularis, can with certainty be identified with Silurian species.

Among the characteristic forms are Alveolites suborbicularis, also common to this formation in the Rhine, and Orthis arcuata, very widely spread in the North Devon localities. But we may expect a large addition to the number of fossils whenever these strata shall have been carefully searched. The Spirifer Sandstone of Sandberger, as exhibited in the rocks bordering the Rhine between Coblentz and Caub, belong to this Lower division, and the same broad-winged Spirifers distinguish the Devonian strata of North America.

(FIGURE 522. Homalonotus armatus, Burmeister. Lower Devonian; Daun, in the Eifel; and S. Devon.

Obs. The two rows of spines down the body give an appearance of more distinct trilobation than really occurs in this or most other species of the genus.)

Among the Trilobites of this era several large species of Homalonotus (Figure 522) are conspicuous. The genus is still better known as a Silurian form, but the spinose species appear to belong exclusively to the "Lower Devonian," and are found in Britain, Europe, and the Cape of Good Hope.

DEVONIAN OF RUSSIA.

The Devonian strata of Russia extend, according to Sir R. Murchison, over a region more s.p.a.cious than the British Isles; and it is remarkable that, where they consist of sandstone like the "Old Red" of Scotland and Central England, they are tenanted by fossil fishes often of the same species and still oftener of the same genera as the British, whereas when they consist of limestone they contain sh.e.l.ls similar to those of Devons.h.i.+re, thus confirming, as Sir Roderick has pointed out, the contemporaneous origin which had been previously a.s.signed to formations exhibiting two very distinct mineral types in different parts of Britain. (Murchison's Siluria page 329.) The calcareous and the arenaceous rocks of Russia above alluded to alternate in such a manner as to leave no doubt of their having been deposited in different parts of the same great period.

DEVONIAN STRATA IN THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA.

(FIGURE 523. Psilophyton princeps, Dawson, Quarterly Geological Journal volume 15 1863; and Canada Survey 1863. Species characteristic of the whole Devonian series in North America.

a. Fruit; natural size.

b. Stem; natural size.

c. Scalariform tissue of the axis highly magnified.)

Between the Carboniferous and Silurian strata there intervenes, in the United States and Canada, a great series of formations referable to the Devonian group, comprising some strata of marine origin abounding in sh.e.l.ls and corals, and others of shallow-water and littoral origin in which terrestrial plants abound.

The fossils, both of the deep and shallow water strata, are very a.n.a.logous to those of Europe, the species being in some cases the same. In Eastern Canada Sir W. Logan has pointed out that in the peninsula of Gaspe, south of the estuary of St. Lawrence, a ma.s.s of sandstone, conglomerate, and shale referable to this period occurs, rich in vegetable remains, together with some fish-spines. Far down in the sandstones of Gaspe, Dr. Dawson found, in 1869, an entire specimen of the genus Cephalaspis, a form so characteristic, as we have already seen, of the Scotch Lower Old Red Sandstone. Some of the sandstones are ripple-marked, and towards the upper part of the whole series a thin seam of coal has been observed, measuring, together with some a.s.sociated carbonaceous shale, about three inches in thickness. It rests on an under-clay in which are the roots of Psilophyton (see Figure 523). At many other levels rootlets of this same plant have been shown by Princ.i.p.al Dawson to penetrate the clays, and to play the same part as do the rootlets of Stigmaria in the coal formation.

We had already learnt from the works of Goppert, Unger, and Bronn that the European plants of the Devonian epoch resemble generically, with few exceptions, those already known as Carboniferous; and Dr. Dawson, in 1859, enumerated 32 genera and 69 species which he had then obtained from the State of New York and Canada. A perusal of his catalogue (Quarterly Geological Journal volume 15 page 477 1859; also volume 18 page 296 1862.), comprising Coniferae, Sigillariae, Calamites, Asterophyllites, Lepidodendra, and ferns of the genera Cyclopteris, Neuropteris, Sphenopteris, and others, together with fruits, such as Cardiocarpum and Trigonocarpum, might dispose geologists to believe that they were presented with a list of Carboniferous fossils, the difference of the species from those of the coal-measures, and even a slight admixture of genera unknown in Europe, being naturally ascribed to geographical distribution and the distance of the New from the Old World. But fortunately the coal formation is fully developed on the other side of the Atlantic, and is singularly like that of Europe, both lithologically and in the species of its fossil plants. There is also the most unequivocal evidence of relative age afforded by superposition, for the Devonian strata in the United States are seen to crop out from beneath the Carboniferous on the borders of Pennsylvania and New York, where both formations are of great thickness.

The number of American Devonian plants has now been raised by Dr. Dawson to 120, to which we may add about 80 from the European flora of the same age, so that already the vegetation of this period is beginning to be nearly half as rich as that of the coal-measures which have been studied for so much longer a time and over so much wider an area. The Psilophyton above alluded to is believed by Dr.

Dawson to be a lycopodiaceous plant, branching dichotomously (see P. princeps, Figure 523), with stems springing from a rhizome, which last has circular areoles, much resembling those of Stigmaria, and like it sending forth cylindrical rootlets. The extreme points of some of the branchlets are rolled up so as to resemble the croziers or circinate vernation of ferns; the leaves or bracts, a, supposed to belong to the same plant, are described by Dawson as having inclosed the fructification. The remains of Psilophyton princeps have been traced through all the members of the Devonian series in America, and Dr.

Dawson has lately recognised it in specimens of Old Red Sandstone from the north of Scotland.

The monotonous character of the Carboniferous flora might be explained by imagining that we have only the vegetation handed down to us of one set of stations, consisting of wide swampy flats. But Dr. Dawson supposes that the geographical conditions under which the Devonian plants grew were more varied, and had more of an upland character. If so, the limitation of this more ancient flora, represented by so many genera and species, to the gymnospermous and cryptogamous orders, and the absence or extreme rarity of plants of higher grade, lead us naturally to speculate on the theory of progressive development, however difficult it may be to avail ourselves of this explanation, so long as we meet with even a few exceptional cases of what may seem to be monocotyledonous or dicotyledonous exogens.

DEVONIAN INSECTS OF CANADA.

The earliest known insects were brought to light in 1865 in the Devonian strata of St. John's, New Brunswick, and are referred by Mr. Scudder to four species of Neuroptera. One of them is a gigantic Ephemera, and measured five inches in expanse of wing.

Like many other ancient animals, says Dr. Dawson, they show a remarkable union of characters now found in distinct orders of insects, or const.i.tute what have been named "synthetic types." Of this kind is a stridulating or musical apparatus like that of the cricket in an insect otherwise allied to the Neuroptera. This structure, as Dr. Dawson observes, if rightly interpreted by Mr. Scudder, introduces us to the sounds of the Devonian woods, bringing before our imagination the trill and hum of insect life that enlivened the solitudes of these strange old forests.

CHAPTER XXVI.

SILURIAN GROUP.

Cla.s.sification of the Silurian Rocks.

Ludlow Formation and Fossils.

Bone-bed of the Upper Ludlow.

Lower Ludlow Shales with Pentamerus.

Oldest known Remains of fossil Fish.

Table of the progressive Discovery of Vertebrata in older Rocks.

Wenlock Formation, Corals, Cystideans and Trilobites.

Llandovery Group or Beds of Pa.s.sage.

Lower Silurian Rocks.

Caradoc and Bala Beds.

Brachiopoda.

Trilobites.

Cystideae.

Graptolites.

Llandeilo Flags.

Arenig or Stiper-stones Group.

Foreign Silurian Equivalents in Europe.

Silurian Strata of the United States.

Canadian Equivalents.

Amount of specific Agreement of Fossils with those of Europe.

CLa.s.sIFICATION OF THE SILURIAN ROCKS.