A Literary History of the Arabs Part 20

[Sidenote: The Ummayyad Caliphate (661-750 A.D.).]

The second division includes the Caliphs of the family of Umayya, from the accession of Mu'awiya in 661 to the great battle of the Zab in 750, when Marwan II, the last of his line, was defeated by the 'Abbasids, who claimed the Caliphate as next of kin to the Prophet. According to Moslem notions the Umayyads were kings by right, Caliphs only by courtesy. They had, as we shall see, no spiritual t.i.tle, and little enough religion of any sort. This dynasty, which had been raised and was upheld by the Syrian Arabs, transferred the seat of government from Medina to Damascus.

[Sidenote: The 'Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258 A.D.).]

The third division is by far the longest and most important. Starting in 750 with the accession of Abu 'l-'Abbas al-Saffah, it presents an unbroken series of thirty-seven Caliphs of the same House, and culminates, after the lapse of half a millennium, in the sack of Baghdad, their magnificent capital, by the Mongol Hulagu (January, 1258). The 'Abbasids were no less despotic than the Umayyads, but in a more enlightened fas.h.i.+on; for, while the latter had been purely Arab in feeling, the 'Abbasids owed their throne to the Persian nationalists, and were imbued with Persian ideas, which introduced a new and fruitful element into Moslem civilisation.

[Sidenote: Early Islamic literature.]

From our special point of view the Orthodox and Umayyad Caliphates, which form the subject of the present chapter, are somewhat barren. The simple life of the pagan Arabs found full expression in their poetry.

The many-sided life of the Moslems under 'Abbasid rule may be studied in a copious literature which exhibits all the characteristics of the age; but of contemporary doc.u.ments ill.u.s.trating the intellectual history of the early Islamic period comparatively little has been preserved, and that little, being for the most part anti-Islamic in tendency, gives only meagre information concerning what excites interest beyond anything else--the religious movement, the rise of theology, and the origin of those great parties and sects which emerge, at various stages of development, in later literature.

[Sidenote: Unity of Church and State.]

Since the Moslem Church and State are essentially one, it is impossible to treat of politics apart from religion, nor can religious phenomena be understood without continual reference to political events. The following brief sketch of the Orthodox Caliphate will show how completely this unity was realised, and what far-reaching consequences it had.

[Sidenote: Abu Bakr elected Caliph (June, 632 A.D.).]

[Sidenote: Musaylima the Liar.]

That Mu?ammad left no son was perhaps of less moment than his neglect or refusal to nominate a successor. The Arabs were unfamiliar with the hereditary descent of kingly power, while the idea had not yet dawned of a Divine right resident in the Prophet's family. It was thoroughly in accord with Arabian practice that the Moslem community should elect its own leader, just as in heathen days the tribe chose its own chief. The likeliest men--all three belonged to Quraysh--were Abu Bakr, whose daughter 'a'isha had been Mu?ammad's favourite wife, 'Umar b.

al-Kha??ab, and 'Ali, Abu ?alib's son and Fa?ima's husband, who was thus connected with the Prophet by blood as well as by marriage.

Abu Bakr was the eldest, he was supported by 'Umar, and on him the choice ultimately fell, though not without an ominous ebullition of party strife. A man of simple tastes and una.s.suming demeanour, he had earned the name _al-?iddiq, _i.e._, the True, by his unquestioning faith in the Prophet; naturally gentle and merciful, he stood firm when the cause of Islam was at stake, and crushed with iron hand the revolt which on the news of Mu?ammad's death spread like wildfire through Arabia. False prophets arose, and the Bedouins rallied round them, eager to throw off the burden of t.i.thes and prayers. In the centre of the peninsula, the Banu ?anifa were led to battle by Musaylima, who imitated the early style of the Koran with ludicrous effect, if we may judge from the sayings ascribed to him, _e.g._, "The elephant, what is the elephant, and who shall tell you what is the elephant? He has a poor tail, and a long trunk: and is a trifling part of the creations of thy G.o.d." Moslem tradition calls him the Liar (_al-Kadhdhab_), and represents him as an obscene miracle-monger, which can hardly be the whole truth. It is possible that he got some of his doctrines from Christianity, as Professor Margoliouth has suggested,[344] but we know too little about them to arrive at any conclusion. After a desperate struggle Musaylima was defeated and slain by 'the Sword of Allah,'

Khalid b. Walid. The Moslem arms were everywhere victorious. Arabia bowed in sullen submission.

[Sidenote: Islam a world-religion.]

[Sidenote: Conquest of Persia and Syria (633-643 A.D.).]

[Sidenote: Moslem toleration.]

Although Muir and other biographers of Mu?ammad have argued that Islam was originally designed for the Arabs alone, and made no claim to universal acceptance, their a.s.sertion is contradicted by the unequivocal testimony of the Koran itself. In one of the oldest Revelations (lxviii, 51-52), we read: "_It wanteth little but that the unbelievers dash thee to the ground with their looks_ (of anger) _when they hear the Warning_ (_i.e._, the Koran); _and they say, 'He is a.s.suredly mad': but it_ (the Koran) _is no other than a_ WARNING UNTO ALL CREATURES" (_dhikrun li 'l-'alamin_).[345] The time had now come when this splendid dream was to be, in large measure, fulfilled. The great wars of conquest were inspired by the Prophet's missionary zeal and justified by his example.

Pious duty coincided with reasons of state. "It was certainly good policy to turn the recently subdued tribes of the wilderness towards an external aim in which they might at once satisfy their l.u.s.t for booty on a grand scale, maintain their warlike feeling, and strengthen themselves in their attachment to the new faith."[346] The story of their achievements cannot be set down here. Suffice it to say that within twelve years after the Prophet's death the Persian Empire had been reduced to a tributary province, and Syria, together with Egypt, torn away from Byzantine rule. It must not be supposed that the followers of Zoroaster and Christ in these countries were forcibly converted to Islam. Thousands embraced it of free will, impelled by various motives which we have no s.p.a.ce to enumerate; those who clung to the religion in which they had been brought up secured protection and toleration by payment of a capitation-tax (_jizya_).[347]

[Sidenote: The Caliph 'Umar (634-644 A.D.).]

The tide of foreign conquest, which had scarce begun to flow before the death of Abu Bakr, swept with amazing rapidity over Syria and Persia in the Caliphate of 'Umar b. al-Kha??ab (634-644), and continued to advance, though with diminished fury, under the Prophet's third successor, 'Uthman. We may dwell for a little on the n.o.ble figure of 'Umar, who was regarded by good Moslems in after times as an embodiment of all the virtues which a Caliph ought to possess. Probably his character has been idealised, but in any case the anecdotes related of him give an admirable picture of the man and his age. Here are a few, taken almost at random from the pages of ?abari.

[Sidenote: His simple manners.]

[Sidenote: His sense of personal responsibility.]

[Sidenote: The Caliph as a policeman.]

[Sidenote: His strictness towards his own family.]

[Sidenote: Instructions to his governors.]

One said: "I saw 'Umar coming to the Festival. He walked with bare feet, using both hands (for he was ambidextrous) to draw round him a red embroidered cloth. He towered above the people, as though he were on horseback."[348] A client of (the Caliph) 'Uthman b. 'Affan relates that he mounted behind his patron and they rode together to the enclosure for the beasts which were delivered in payment of the poor-tax. It was an exceedingly hot day and the simoom was blowing fiercely. They saw a man clad only in a loin-cloth and a short cloak (_rida_), in which he had wrapped his head, driving the camels into the enclosure. 'Uthman said to his companion, "Who is this, think you?" When they came up to him, behold, it was 'Umar b.

al-Kha??ab. "By G.o.d," said 'Uthman, "this is _the strong, the trusty_."[349]--'Umar used to go round the markets and recite the Koran and judge between disputants wherever he found them.--When Ka'bu 'l-A?bar, a well-known Rabbin of Medina, asked how he could obtain access to the Commander of the Faithful,[350] he received this answer: "There is no door nor curtain to be pa.s.sed; he performs the rites of prayer, then he takes his seat, and any one that wishes may speak to him."[351] 'Umar said in one of his public orations, "By Him who sent Mu?ammad with the truth, were a single camel to die of neglect on the bank of the Euphrates, I should fear lest G.o.d should call the family of al-Kha??ab" (meaning himself) "to account therefor."[352]--"If I live," he is reported to have said on another occasion, "please G.o.d, I will a.s.suredly spend a whole year in travelling among my subjects, for I know they have wants which are cut short ere they reach my ears: the governors do not bring the wants of the people before me, while the people themselves do not attain to me. So I will journey to Syria and remain there two months, then to Mesopotamia and remain there two months, then to Egypt and remain there two months, then to Ba?rayn and remain there two months, then to Kufa and remain there two months, then to Ba?ra and remain there two months; and by G.o.d, it will be a year well spent!"[353]--One night he came to the house of 'Abdu 'l-Ra?man b. 'Awf and knocked at the door, which was opened by 'Abdu 'l-Ra?man's wife. "Do not enter," said she, "until I go back and sit in my place;" so he waited. Then she bade him come in, and on his asking, "Have you anything in the house?" she fetched him some food. Meanwhile 'Abdu 'l-Ra?man was standing by, engaged in prayer. "Be quick, man!" cried 'Umar. 'Abdu 'l-Ra?man immediately p.r.o.nounced the final salaam, and turning to the Caliph said: "O Commander of the Faithful, what has brought you here at this hour?"

'Umar replied: "A party of travellers who alighted in the neighbourhood of the market: I was afraid that the thieves of Medina might fall upon them. Let us go and keep watch." So he set off with 'Abdu 'l-Ra?man, and when they reached the market-place they seated themselves on some high ground and began to converse.

Presently they descried, far away, the light of a lamp. "Have not I forbidden lamps after bedtime?"[354] exclaimed the Caliph. They went to the spot and found a company drinking wine. "Begone," said 'Umar to 'Abdu 'l-Ra?man; "I know him." Next morning he sent for the culprit and said, addressing him by name, "Last night you were drinking wine with your friends." "O Commander of the Faithful, how did you ascertain that?" "I saw it with my own eyes." "Has not G.o.d forbidden you to play the spy?" 'Umar made no answer and pardoned his offence.[355]--When 'Umar ascended the pulpit for the purpose of warning the people that they must not do something, he gathered his family and said to them: "I have forbidden the people to do so-and-so. Now, the people look at you as birds look at flesh, and I swear by G.o.d that if I find any one of you doing this thing, I will double the penalty against him."[356]--Whenever he appointed a governor he used to draw up in writing a certificate of invest.i.ture, which he caused to be witnessed by some of the Emigrants or Helpers.

It contained the following instructions: That he must not ride on horseback, nor eat white bread, nor wear fine clothes, nor set up a door between himself and those who had aught to ask of him.[357]--It was 'Umar's custom to go forth with his governors, on their appointment, to bid them farewell. "I have not appointed you," he would say, "over the people of Mu?ammad (G.o.d bless him and grant him peace!) that you may drag them by their hair and scourge their skins, but in order that you may lead them in prayer and judge between them with right and divide (the public money) amongst them with equity. I have not made you lords of their skin and hair. Do not flog the Arabs lest you humiliate them, and do not keep them long on foreign service lest you tempt them to sedition, and do not neglect them lest you render them desperate. Confine yourselves to the Koran, write few Traditions of Mu?ammad (G.o.d bless him and grant him peace!), and I am your ally." He used to permit retaliation against his governors. On receiving a complaint about any one of them he confronted him with the accuser, and punished him if his guilt were proved.[358]

[Sidenote: The Register of 'Umar.]

It was 'Umar who first made a Register (_Diwan_) of the Arabs in Islam and entered them therein according to their tribes and a.s.signed to them their stipends. The following account of its inst.i.tution is extracted from the charming history ent.i.tled _al-Fakhri_:--

In the fifteenth year of the Hijra (636 A.D.) 'Umar, who was then Caliph, seeing that the conquests proceeded without interruption and that the treasures of the Persian monarchs had been taken as spoil, and that load after load was being acc.u.mulated of gold and silver and precious jewels and splendid raiment, resolved to enrich the Moslems by distributing all this wealth amongst them; but he did not know how he should manage it. Now there was a Persian satrap (_marzuban_) at Medina who, when he saw 'Umar's bewilderment, said to him, "O Commander of the Faithful, the Persian kings have a thing they call a _Diwan_, in which is kept the whole of their revenues and expenditures without exception; and therein those who receive stipends are arranged in cla.s.ses, so that no confusion occurs."

'Umar's attention was aroused. He bade the satrap describe it, and on comprehending its nature, he drew up the registers and a.s.signed the stipends, appointing a specified allowance for every Moslem; and he allotted fixed sums to the wives of the Apostle (on whom be G.o.d's blessing and peace!) and to his concubines and next-of-kin, until he exhausted the money in hand. He did not lay up a store in the treasury. Some one came to him and said: "O Commander of the Faithful, you should have left something to provide for contingencies." 'Umar rebuked him, saying, "The devil has put these words into your mouth. May G.o.d preserve me from their mischief! for it were a temptation to my successors. Come what may, I will provide naught except obedience to G.o.d and His Apostle. That is our provision, whereby we have gained that which we have gained." Then, in respect of the stipends, he deemed it right that precedence should be according to priority of conversion to Islam and of service rendered to the Apostle on his fields of battle.[359]

[Sidenote: The aristocracy of Islam.]

[Sidenote: "'Tis only n.o.ble to be good."]

Affinity to Mu?ammad was also considered. "By G.o.d," exclaimed 'Umar, "we have not won superiority in this world, nor do we hope for recompense for our works from G.o.d hereafter, save through Mu?ammad (G.o.d bless him and grant him peace!). He is our t.i.tle to n.o.bility, his tribe are the n.o.blest of the Arabs, and after them those are the n.o.bler that are nearer to him in blood. Truly, the Arabs are enn.o.bled by G.o.d's Apostle. Peradventure some of them have many ancestors in common with him, and we ourselves are only removed by a few forbears from his line of descent, in which we accompany him back to Adam. Notwithstanding this, if the foreigners bring good works and we bring none, by G.o.d, they are nearer to Mu?ammad on the day of Resurrection than we. Therefore let no man regard affinity, but let him work for that which is in G.o.d's hands to bestow. He that is r.e.t.a.r.ded by his works will not be sped by his lineage."[360]

It may be said of 'Umar, not less appropriately than of Cromwell, that he

"cast the kingdoms old Into another mould;"

and he too justified the poet's maxim--

"The same arts that did gain A power, must it maintain."

[Sidenote: Foundation of Ba?ra and Kufa (638 A.D.).]

Under the system which he organised Arabia, purged of infidels, became a vast recruiting-ground for the standing armies of Islam: the Arabs in the conquered territories formed an exclusive military cla.s.s, living in great camps and supported by revenues derived from the non-Mu?ammadan population. Out of such camps arose two cities destined to make their mark in literary history--Ba?ra (Ba.s.sora) on the delta of the Tigris and Euphrates, and Kufa, which was founded about the same time on the western branch of the latter stream, not far from ?ira.

[Sidenote: Death of 'Umar (644 A.D.)]

'Umar was murdered by a Persian slave named Firuz while leading the prayers in the Great Mosque. With his death the military theocracy and the palmy days of the Patriarchal Caliphate draw to a close. The broad lines of his character appear in the anecdotes translated above, though many details might be added to complete the picture. Simple and frugal; doing his duty without fear or favour; energetic even to harshness, yet capable of tenderness towards the weak; a severe judge of others and especially of himself, he was a born ruler and every inch a man. Looking back on the turmoils which followed his death one is inclined to agree with the opinion of a saintly doctor who said, five centuries afterwards, that "the good fortune of Islam was shrouded in the grave-clothes of 'Umar b. al-Kha??ab."[361]

[Sidenote: 'Uthman elected Caliph (644 A.D.).]

[Sidenote: General disaffection.]

[Sidenote: 'Uthman murdered (656 A.D.).]

When the Meccan aristocrats accepted Islam, they only yielded to the inevitable. They were now to have an opportunity of revenging themselves. 'Uthman b. 'Affan, who succeeded 'Umar as Caliph, belonged to a distinguished Meccan family, the Umayyads or descendants of Umayya, which had always taken a leading part in the opposition to Mu?ammad, though 'Uthman himself was among the Prophet's first disciples. He was a pious, well-meaning old man--an easy tool in the hands of his ambitious kinsfolk. They soon climbed into all the most lucrative and important offices and lived on the fat of the land, while too often their unG.o.dly behaviour gave point to the question whether these converts of the eleventh hour were not still heathens at heart. Other causes contributed to excite a general discontent. The rapid growth of luxury and immorality in the Holy Cities as well as in the new settlements was an eyesore to devout Moslems. The true Islamic aristocracy, the Companions of the Prophet, headed by 'Ali, ?al?a, and Zubayr, strove to undermine the rival n.o.bility which threatened them with destruction. The factious soldiery were ripe for revolt against Umayyad arrogance and greed.

Rebellion broke out, and finally the aged Caliph, after enduring a siege of several weeks, was murdered in his own house. This event marks an epoch in the history of the Arabs. The ensuing civil wars rent the unity of Islam from top to bottom, and the wound has never healed.

[Sidenote: 'Ali elected Caliph (656 A.D.).]

[Sidenote: Character of 'Ali.]

[Sidenote: His apotheosis.]

'Ali, the Prophet's cousin and son-in-law, who had hitherto remained in the background, was now made Caliph. Although the suspicion that he was in league with the murderers may be put aside, he showed culpable weakness in leaving 'Uthman to his fate without an effort to save him.