The Boy's Playbook of Science Part 49

Newcomen was a.s.sisted in his work by one Cawley, a glazier; and their persevering labours were crowned with a successful result of the most memorable importance in the history of the steam-engine.

In the engine by Savery, the operation of the steam was twofold--namely, by the direct pressure from its elasticity, and by the indirect consequence of its condensation, which affords a vacuum. This last may be said to be the only principle used by Newcomen, who employed a boiler for the generation of steam, and conveyed it by a pipe to the bottom of a hollow cylinder, open at the top, but provided with a solid piston, that moved up and down in it, and was rendered tight by a stuffing of hemp, like the piston of a boy's common squirt. It can readily be understood, that if the jet of the latter was connected with a tight little boiler, and steam blown into it, that the piston of the squirt would rise to the top of the barrel in which it works, being thrust up by the pressure or force of the steam; but unless the steam was cut off, and cold water applied to the interior of the barrel, the piston could not descend again. As soon, therefore, as Newcomen had thrust up the piston by the action of steam, he introduced a jet of cold water, supplied from an elevated cistern beneath the piston, when the steam was condensed into water, and a vacuum or void s.p.a.ce obtained. The piston being free to move either up or down, was now forced in the latter direction by the pressure of the air, which is a constant force equal to fifteen pounds on the square inch; and thus the piston in Newcomen's engine was raised by _heat_--viz., by steam, and thrust down by _cold_--i.e., by the condensation of the steam producing a vacuum. The void obtained in this manner was very considerable, because one cubic _foot_ of [Page 423] steam at 212 condenses into one cubic _inch_ of water. The production of a vacuum with the aid of steam is quickly effected by boiling some water in a clean camphine can, and when the steam is issuing freely from the mouth of the latter it is then corked, and cold water thrown over the exterior. Directly the temperature is lowered, the steam inside the tin vessel is condensed suddenly into water, and a void s.p.a.ce being suddenly obtained, the whole pressure of a column of air of a breadth equal to the area of the vessel, and of a height of forty miles, is brought suddenly down like a sledge-hammer upon the sides of the tin vessel, and as they are not sufficiently strong to offer a proper resistance, they are crushed in like an egg-sh.e.l.l by the giant weight which falls upon them.

The barometer, or measurer of the weight of the air, consists of a gla.s.s tube about thirty-three inches in length, hermetically sealed at one end, and containing mercury that has been carefully boiled within it, and being perfectly filled the tube is inserted in a cistern of clean mercury, when it gravitates to a height equal to the pressure of the air, leaving a s.p.a.ce at the top called the torricellian vacuum. As the atmospheric air decreases in density by admixture with invisible steam or vapour, any given volume becomes specifically lighter: hence the column of mercury falls to a height of about twenty-eight inches; whilst if the aqueous vapour diminishes, the weight of the air becomes greater, and the barometer may rise to a height of about thirty-one inches.

Having thus secured a "reciprocating motion," Newcomen applied it to the working of a force-pump by the intervention of a great beam or lever suspended on gudgeons (an iron pin on which a wheel or shaft of a machine turns) at the middle, and suspended like the beam of a pair of scales; and, in fact, he invented that method of supporting the beam which is in use to the present day. Supposing we compare Newcomen's beam to a scale beam, he attached to the extremities (instead of scale pans) a water pump and his steam cylinder--the latter being at one end, and the former at the other. The beam played at "see-saw:" by the primary action of the steam on the bottom of the piston in the _cylinder_ it was pushed up at this end, and of course suffered an equal fall at the other, to which the pump piston was attached; and when the motion was reversed by the condensation of the steam, down went the piston again by the pressure of the air, whilst that of the water pump was again raised, and being provided with proper valves, the water was pumped slowly out of the mine, although the steam power used was very moderate, and only just sufficient to counterpoise the weight of the atmosphere. Newcomen made the end attached to the water pump purposely heavier than the steam piston of the other end of the beam, and by this means the work of the steam, by its elasticity, was very moderate, whilst the actual lift of the water from the mine was performed by the pressure of the air, equal (as already stated) to fifteen pounds on every square inch of the surface of the steam piston. This engine is called the atmospheric engine, and in the next cut we have a picture taken from a photograph by the "Watt Club" of the actual model of the Newcomen engine in the [Page 424] Hunterian Museum of the University of Glasgow; the dimensions being--length, 27 in.; breadth, 12 in.; height, 50 in.; from which, "in 1765, _James Watt, in seeking to repair this model_, belonging to the Natural Philosophy Cla.s.s in the University of Glasgow, _made the discovery of a separate condenser_, which has identified his name with that of the steam-engine." (Fig. 394.)

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 394. Model of the Newcomen engine, in which the furnace and boiler, the steam cylinder, beam, water-pump, and elevated cistern of water, are apparent.]

In Newcomen's engine, the opening and shutting of the c.o.c.ks required the vigilant care of a man or boy, and it is stated on good authority that a boy who preferred (like nearly all other boys) _play_ to work, contrived, by means of strings, a brick, and one or two catches on the working beam, to make the engine self-acting.

This poor boy's ingenious contrivance paved the way for the improved [Page 425] methods of opening and shutting the valves, which were brought to a great state of perfection by Beighton, of Newcastle, about 1718. Between that time and the year 1763, we find honourable mention made of Smeaton in connexion with the steam-engine, but the name of the great James Watt at this time began to be appreciated, and by a series of wonderfully simple mechanisms, he at last perfected the machine whose origin could be traced back not only to the time of Blasco de Garay, in 1543, but even to the days of the ancient mechanicians, such as Hero, who lived 130 B.C.

In 1763, James Watt was a maker of mathematical instruments in Glasgow, and his attention was drawn to the subject of the steam-engine by his undertaking to repair a working model of Newcomen's steam-engine, which was used by Professor Anderson, who then filled the Chair of Natural Philosophy, and subsequently founded the Andersonian Inst.i.tution. The repairs required for this model induced Watt to make another, and by watching its operation, he discovered that a vast quant.i.ty of heat, and therefore fuel, was wasted in the constant and successive heating and cooling of the steam cylinder. About two years after, when Watt was twenty-nine years of age, he had made so many experiments, that he was enabled to put into a mechanical shape his original ideas, which are embodied in his patent of 1769, as follows:--

"My method of lessening the consumption of steam, and consequently fuel, in fire-engines, consists of the following _principles_:

"First: That vessel in which the powers of steam are to be employed to work the engine, which is called the cylinder in common fire-engines, and which I call the steam-vessel, must, during the whole time the engine is at work, _be kept as hot as the steam that enters it_--first, by enclosing it in a case of wood or any other materials that transmit heat slowly; secondly, by surrounding it with steam or other heated bodies; and thirdly, by suffering neither water nor any other substance colder than steam to enter or touch it during that time.

"Secondly: In engines that are to be worked wholly or partially by condensation of steam, the steam is to be condensed in vessels _distinct_ from the steam-vessels or cylinders, although occasionally communicating with them; _these vessels_ I call _condensers_; and whilst the engines are working, these condensers ought at least to be kept as cold as the air in the neighbourhood of the engine, by application of water or other cold bodies.

"Thirdly: Whatever air or other elastic vapour is not condensed by the cold of the condenser, and may impede the working of the engine, is to be drawn out of the steam-vessels or condensers by means of pumps wrought by the engines themselves, or otherwise.

"Fourthly: I intend in many cases to employ the expansive force of steam to press on the pistons, or whatever may be used instead of them, in the same manner as the pressure of the atmosphere is now employed in common fire-engines. In cases where cold water cannot be had in plenty, the engines may be wrought by this force of steam only, by discharging the steam into the open air after it has done its office.

"Lastly: Instead of using water to render the piston or other parts of [Page 426] the engines air and steam-tight, I employ oils, wax, resinous bodies, fat of animals, quicksilver, and other metals in their fluid state.

"And the said James Watt, by a memorandum added to the said specification, declared that he did not intend that anything in the fourth article should be understood to extend to any engine when the water to be raised enters the steam-vessel itself, or any vessel having an open communication with it."

"About the time he obtained his patent, Watt commenced the construction of his first real engine, the cylinder of which was eighteen inches in diameter, and after many impediments in the details of the work he succeeded in bringing it to considerable perfection. The bad boring of the cylinder, and the difficulty of obtaining a substance that would keep the piston tight without enormous friction, and at the same time resist the action of steam, gave him the most trouble, and the employment of a piston rod moving through a stuffing-box was a new feature in steam-engines at that time, and required great nicety of workmans.h.i.+p to make it effectual. While Watt was contending with these difficulties, Roebuck's finances became disarranged, and in 1773 he disposed of his interest in the patent to Mr. Boulton, of Soho. As, however, a considerable part of the term of fourteen years, for which the patent was granted, had already pa.s.sed away, and as several years more would probably elapse before the improved engines could be brought into operation, it was judged expedient to apply to Parliament for a prolongation of the term, and an Act was pa.s.sed in 1775 granting an extension of twenty-five years from that date, in consideration of the great merit of the invention." (Bourne's "Treatise on the Steam-engine.")

In Fig. 395 (p. 427) we give an ill.u.s.tration of a low-pressure condensing engine and boiler of eight-horse power, constructed on the principle of Boulton and Watt, as the latter had fortunately united his skill, learning, originality, and experience with Mr. Boulton, of Soho, near Birmingham, whose metal manufactory was already the most celebrated in England.

During the explanation of this eight horse-power engine, the opportunity may be taken to discuss occasionally the special improvements effected by Watt. The steam-pipe A conveys the steam generated in the boiler B to the slide-valve C, which is kept close to the surface, against which it works by the pressure of the steam.

Here we notice some of the valuable improvements of Watt in the admission of steam _above_ as well as _below_ the piston, by which he increased the power of his engine, and no longer confined it to the force of the atmospheric pressure. It is also necessary to remark the beautifully simple mechanism of the slide-valve, by which steam is admitted alternately above and below the piston. Want of s.p.a.ce prevents us tracing out the gradual improvements effected by Watt, and therefore we take his invention as it stood in the year 1780, and refer our readers to Bourne's "Treatise on the Steam-engine" for the full and minute particulars of the improvements to that date.

[Page 427]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 395. An eight-horse power condensing steam-engine, after the principle of Boulton and Watt, and explained in pages 426 to 432.]

[Page 428]

At that time it occurred to Watt that the _condensation_ of the steam from the _cylinder_ after it had done its work, might be made more perfect if a _perpetual vacuum_ was maintained beneath the piston, while an alternate steam-pressure and vacuum were produced above it. (Fig.

396.)

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 396. "E E is the cylinder. J. The piston, _a._ The steam-pipe. _b._ The regulating or throttle valve, _e._ The eduction and equilibrium single valve, performing the functions of both. _c._ The upper, and _f_ the under, portholes, by which pa.s.sages only the steam can enter and pa.s.s away. _d, j, g._ The eduction-pipe by which the steam pa.s.ses from above the piston during every returning stroke to the condenser, a perpetual exhaustion being maintained beneath it."--From BOURNE _on the Steam-engine_.]

Instead of obtaining a specific advantage the contrary occurred, and Watt was obliged in this case to return to the ponderous Newcomen counterweight to balance the difference in the vacuum above and below the piston, consequently this form of the cylinder and valves was abandoned. The juvenile reader will perceive in the above drawing that the superior arrangement of Watt's cylinder to that of Newcomen arises from the steam operating above and below the piston, and that the piston rod works air-tight in a _stuffing box_ at the top of the cylinder. A most important improvement in the employment of steam as a motive power has been discovered in the mode of using it "expansively," by which the steam, at a pressure say of sixty pounds on the square inch, is admitted below the piston, and then cut off and allowed to expand and drive up the latter without the expenditure of any more fuel, and leaving, after lifting the piston to a height say of three feet, an average or mean power of thirty pounds on the square inch.

Returning to the eight-horse condensing engine, D is the steam cylinder surrounded by a case to prevent the steam cooling and to maintain in the [Page 429] cylinder the same, or nearly the same, temperature as that of the steam in the boiler, according to the condition of Art. I.

of Watt's Patent, quoted at p. 425 of this book. The same outer case is apparent around the cylinder in Fig. 396; E, the piston, which, by stuffing with hemp or other proper material, fits the interior of the cylinder in the most accurate manner, and prevents the escape of steam by its sides: _e_ is the piston rod attached to the parallel motion.

This clockwork-like piece of mechanism has often been quoted as one of the masterpieces of Watt, and in its greatest perfection is called the _complete_ parallel motion, and may be found in all the best land beam steam-engines. The object of the parallel motion is to cause the piston and pump rods to move always in straight lines, never deviating to either side. (Fig. 397.)

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 397. A B is half the beam, A being the main centre, B E. The main links connecting the piston-rod F with the end of the beam. G D. The air-pump links, from the centre of which the air-pump rod is suspended. C D and E D produce the parallelism, because C D is moveable only round the fixed centre C, whilst E D is not only moveable round the centre D, but the centre itself in the arc described by C D, and by this action E D corrects the distorting influence of its own radius. The dotted lines and letters above enable the observer to see the effect of the movement of the beam on the parallel motion.]

In the eight horse-power engine shown in page picture, _e_ is also attached to the piston E, which moves the beam F, and the other end of this beam, by the connecting rod _g_, gives motion to the heavy fly wheel G, by means of the crank _h_.

H is an eccentric circle on the axle of the fly wheel G, it gives motion to the slide valve, which admits the steam alternately above and below the piston. The slide valve and its seat are contained within an oblong box or case, large enough to permit the easy motion of the valve within it, and usually forming an enlargement in the course of a pipe.

The valve rod by means of which the valve is opened and shut, pa.s.ses out through a stuffing box; or, instead of such a rod, a valve of moderate size often has a nut fixed to it, within which works a screw on the end of an axle which pa.s.ses out through a bush, and has shoulders within and without to prevent it from moving longitudinally, and a square on the outer end on which the key fits that is used in turning it. I is the throttle valve inside the steam pipe and lever connected with a governor for regulating the admission of steam into the cylinder.

Here, again, we pause in the description of our eight horse-power engine to ill.u.s.trate more particularly this admirable contrivance of [Page 430] Watt, which remains to the present day without any material alteration even in the best steam-engines. (Fig. 398.)

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 398. A. The seat of the throttle valve, Z. The valve itself turning on a spindle, which pa.s.ses through its centre. _a_ is the steam pipe. _w._ The throttle valve lever on which the rod H, proceeding from the governor, acts. D D. The spindle of the governor revolving by a belt acting on the pulley _d_. E E. The b.a.l.l.s hung on the ends of the arms, which cross each other at _e_ like a pair of scissors. When D D is set in motion, the b.a.l.l.s fly out by centrifugal motion, and in doing so draw down the collar into which the lever F works by means of the links _f h_. When F is depressed, of course H rises, and the valve Z is partly closed, and the supply of steam reduced.]

In the eight-horse engine already partly explained, _k_ is the cylinder of an air-pump to remove any air, and the water which condenses the steam, from the condenser L. There is also the eduction pipe, which conducts the steam from the cylinder to the condenser L. O is the pump that supplies cold water to the cistern S, in which the condenser and air-pump stand, P is a rod connected with the injection c.o.c.k for admitting a jet of water into the condenser from the cistern, and which is continually flowing during the working of the engine, Q Q, cast-iron columns, four of which support the princ.i.p.al parts of the engine.

We now come to the boiler of the steam-engine, which is of course of almost equal importance with the engine itself; and the one in our page-picture is a good type of one of the favourite boilers used by Messrs. Boulton and Watt, and is called the "Wagon boiler." The boiler is made of wrought-iron plates rivetted together, and properly strengthened where necessary; and the steam-pipe A conveys the steam to the engine. It may be remarked here that the cylindrical [Page 431]

boiler--consisting of two cylinders, one within the other, of which the former contains the fire, whilst the furnace-draught circulates outside the latter, and the s.p.a.ce between the two cylinders being filled with water--is the form of boiler which is most highly approved of, and is employed in the famous economical steam-engines of the Cornish mines.

As the water evaporates in the form of steam, the boiler must be continually supplied with fresh water, which comes (as will be noticed by inspecting the page picture) from the _hot well_ S, by means of the _hot-water pump R_, attached to the beam F. The water is pumped to the top of a column rising above but connected with the boiler. There is a cylindrical float, inside the column of water, connected with the boiler, suspended ever a pulley by a chain pa.s.sing to the damper of the furnace. The damper and float balance each other, and when the water in the boiler rises to too high a temperature, it causes the float to rise in the column of water, which lowering the damper or shutter that stops the draught of the chimney of the furnace T, diminishes the intensity of the heat, and reduces the formation of steam. On the other hand, as the temperature diminishes, the float descends and the damper rises, and permitting more air to rush to the burning fuel in the fire, a greater quant.i.ty of steam is generated.

There is likewise a stone float inside the boiler, for regulating the supply of water by the feed pipe, or column of water, which latter must always be sufficiently lofty to press with greater force than the steam produced in the boiler, or else the power of the steam might, under certain circ.u.mstances, eject or blow out the water from the top of the column. The stone is suspended by a bra.s.s wire which works through a stuffing box, and is connected with a lever, to which is attached a heavy counterpoise, so adjusted that when the stone is immersed to a certain depth in water (according to the principle of a solid body losing weight in a fluid, explained in the article on specific gravity, page 48), it shall exactly balance the latter, but when the water sinks in the boiler, and the stone is no longer surrounded with water, it becomes heavier, and sinking down opens a conical plug, ground so as to fit water-tight into a hole in the bottom of the column of water or feed pipe, and directly the plug opens, water rushes into the boiler; being cut off again as the stone rises when immersed or surrounded with the proper height of water. Unless our juvenile readers refer to the article on specific gravity, they will not understand the otherwise seeming anomaly of a _stone float_.

A large hole, called the man-hole, covered with an iron plate and securely fastened with screws, is provided for the purpose of allowing the engineer to enter the boiler, when cold, for the purpose of clearing out the incrustation and dirt arising from the water. To prevent the incrustation of lime and other earthy matters, it is sometimes usual, on the principle "_that prevention is better than cure_" to put a large log of "logwood" inside the boiler, as it is found that the colouring matter curiously prevents the earthy matter, so well known as the "fur" in iron "tea-kettles," sticking to the sides of the boiler. Sal ammoniac [Page 432] and other salts also have the same property, but neither are much used, the mechanical labour of chipping out the boiler and stopping its work for a day or so, being preferred to the _prevention plan_ already described.

There is also a valve opening inwards to prevent the consequences of a sudden condensation in the boiler, and also a safety valve and lever with weights opening outwards, and allowing the steam to escape when it reaches a dangerous excess, and in order to look as it were at the state of the pressure inside the iron boiler, a proper steam gauge is provided, also two c.o.c.ks--viz., a water and steam c.o.c.k, to enable the engineer to ascertain if the water is up to, and does not exceed, the proper height, because when turned, supposing that all is going on properly, the former, No. 7, should eject water, the latter, No. 8, steam.

It is truly wonderful, considering the number of safeguards and warnings provided, that accidents ever happen to boilers, but the statistics of deaths and annual destruction of property show that science is powerless, nay, absolutely dangerous, when handled by ignorant and careless persons. The great fly-wheel, which is usually such an awe-inspiring and marvellous exhibition of strength in an engine of any great power, is employed for the purpose of storing up force, so that if any parts of the engine work indifferently (they all work with resistance), it shall equalize the wants of the whole, and by its inertia it will continue to move until its motion is stopped by a resistance equal to its momentum.

In starting an engine, the engineer may sometimes be observed labouring to move the "fly-wheel," and when once he succeeds in getting it to move, the resistance of the other parts of the machinery is soon overcome. Mr. Alderson, in his prize essay, remarks that "it is in the property which the steam-engine possesses of regulating itself, and providing for all its wants, that the great beauty of the invention consists. It has been said that nothing made by the hand of man approaches so near to animal life. Heat is the principle of its movement; there is in its tubes circulation, like that of the blood in the veins of animals, having valves which open and shut in proper periods; it feeds itself, evacuates such portions of its food as are useless, and draws from its own labours all that is necessary to its own subsistance. To this may be added, that they are now regulated so as not to exceed the a.s.signed speed, and thus do animals in a state of nature.

That the safety valves, like the pores of perspiration, open to permit the escape of superfluous heat in the form of steam. The steam gauge, as a pulse to the boiler, indicates the heat and pressure of the steam within; and the motion of the piston represents the action and the power of which it is capable. The motion of the fluids in the boiler represents the expanding and collapsing of the heart; the fluid that goes to it by one channel is drawn off by another, in part to be returned when condensed by the cold, similar to the operation of veins and arteries. Animals require long and frequent periods of relaxation from fatigue, and any great acc.u.mulation of their power is not obtained without great expense and inconvenience. The [Page 433] wind is uncertain; and water, the constancy of which is in few places equal to the wants of the machinist, can seldom be obtained on the spot where other circ.u.mstances require machines to be erected. To relieve us from all these difficulties, the last century has given us the steam-engine for a resource, the power of which may be increased to infinitude: it requires but little room; it may be erected in all places, and its mighty services are always at our command, whether in winter or summer, by day or by night, on land or water; it knows no intermission but what our wishes dictate."

The _high-pressure_ steam-engine appears to have been first brought into general use by Trevethic and Vivian, although the primary notion of such a modification of the Newcomen or water-engines did not originate with them. As the name implies, the steam is brought to a much higher temperature and pressure than is required in the condensing engines of Boulton and Watt. It consisted, in the first place, of a cylinder open at the top, and provided with a piston. To save heat the cylinder was fixed _inside_ the boiler, and was provided with a two-way c.o.c.k worked by a crank, for the purpose of supplying and cutting off the steam. The downward stroke was produced by the atmosphere, and the steam having done its work, was simply blown away and wasted in the air.

The engine was provided with a fly-wheel, to which the piston-rod was at once attached, producing a continuous rotatory movement without the a.s.sistance of the heavier parallel motion, or hot and cold water pumps.

This form of engine was soon adopted for pumping work--such as that of draining fens; and in 1804 Mr. Richard Trevethic used it for propelling the first carriage on the Merthyr Tydvil rail or tram way, and it was then speedily adopted in all the coal districts where the levels were moderate. Stephenson the elder, succeeded by the late lamented Robert Stephenson, followed with inventions and improvements of the locomotive steam-engine; and we are told in "Once a Week" that,

"One of those best qualified to speak to the latter's contributions to the development of the locomotive engine, states that from about five years from his return from America, Robert Stephenson's attention was chiefly directed to its improvement. 'None but those who accompanied him during the period in his incessant experiments can form an idea of the amazing metamorphosis which the machine underwent in it. The most elementary principles of the application of heat, of the mode of calculating the strength of cylindrical and other boilers, of the strength of rivetting and of staying flat portions of the boilers, were then far from being understood, and each step in the improvement of the engine had to be confirmed by the most careful experiments before the brilliant results of the Rocket and Planet engines (the latter being the type of the existing modern locomotive) could be arrived at.'

"Stephenson's time was not, however, so fully taken up during the above interval as to preclude attention to his other civil engineering business, and he executed within it the Leicester and Swannington, [Page 434] Whitby and Pickering, Canterbury and Whitstable, and Newton and Warrington Railways; while he also erected an extensive manufactory for locomotives at Newton, in Lancas.h.i.+re, in partners.h.i.+p with the Messrs. Tayleur. About the middle of the above period, also, the first surveys and estimates for the London and Birmingham Railway were framed, leading eventually to the obtaining of the Act. Then followed the execution of that line, and here Robert Stephenson had an opportunity of showing his great talent for the management of works on a large scale.

This was the first railway of any magnitude executed under the contract system; perfect sets of plans and specifications (which have since served as a type for nearly all the subsequent lines) were prepared--no small matter for a series of works extending over 112 miles, involving tunnels and other works of a then unprecedented magnitude.

"Many other railways in England and abroad were executed by him in rapid succession; the Midland, Blackwall, Northern and Eastern, Norfolk, Chester and Holyhead, together with numerous branch lines, were executed in this country by him; and among railways abroad may be enumerated as works either executed by him or recommended in his capacity of a consulting engineer, the system of lines in Belgium, Italy, Norway, and Egypt, and in France, Holland, Denmark, India, Canada, and New Zealand.

"Robert Stephenson first saw the light in the village of Willington, at a cottage which his father occupied after his marriage with Miss f.a.n.n.y Henderson--a marriage contracted on the strength of his first appointment as "breaksman" to the engine employed for lifting the ballast brought by the return collier s.h.i.+ps to Newcastle. Here Robert was born on the 17th of November, 1803. As the cottage looked out upon a tramway, the eyes of the child were naturally familiarized from infancy with sights and scenes most nearly connected with his future profession."