Theory of Silk Weaving Part 1

Theory Of Silk Weaving.by Arnold Wolfensberger.PREFACEThe silk industry of America has of late years rapidly advanced to thefront rank among the great textile industries of the world. It may indeedbe proud of this position, to which that enterprising spirit and untiringenergy peculiar to our nation, combined with our great technical andnatural resources, has brought it.That we are, on the other hand, not yet at the height of perfection we arealso compelled to acknowledge, but if we consider the short s.p.a.ce of timethat the American industry has required for its development, as compared tothe decades, almost centuries, to which some of the great European silkcenters can look back, the fact is neither surprising nor discouraging.While it must not be our aim to imitate or copy their ways, inasmuch as outconditions and circ.u.mstances are quite different from theirs, we may stillprofitably study their methods in order to overcome our deficiencies.The greatest advantage which our compet.i.tors derive from such a longexistence consists in having at their disposal a force of skilful, trainedhelp. The manufacturers, appreciating the importance of this factor, makegreat efforts and pecuniary sacrifices to elevate and maintain the highstandard of their industry.For instance, they support textile schools and lecture courses, where youngmen can acquire a thorough technical education and equip themselves for acareer of usefulness, thereby serving their own interests and at the sametime furthering those of their chosen profession. [Page 6]This beneficial influence cannot fail to exert itself from the standard ofthe higher employer down to that of the weaver, who would naturally takemore pains and interest in his work than if he were a mere mechanicalappendage to his loom in order to keep it in motion.Very little has been done in his country for technical education as far asthe silk industry is concerned, and it was on this special branch, thatprompted the author to offer in the present little work a treatise on thetheory of shaft weaving for broad silks and ribbons.It is divided into three princ.i.p.al parts: #1st. Drawing-in the warp in the harness. 2nd. The weaves and their application. 3rd. Decomposition or a.n.a.lysis of the cloth.#To the foregoing there have been added in the revised and enlarged editionseveral additional parts covering the following: JACQUARD WEAVES, BOX LOOMWEAVES, including CREPES, and COST CALCULATIONS for plain and fancy weaves.The subject while condensed, is made as clear and comprehensible aspossible, and to many desirous of increasing their knowledge in thisdirection, this should prove a valuable help.The author, through the medium of this work, hopes to win the approval andencouragement of the manufacturers, and will feel amply repaid should hisefforts tend to develop a deeper interest in the "Queen of Textiles." * * * * * [Page 7]THEORY OF SILK WEAVINGDRAWING-INWith this term we designate the operation preceding the weaving, by whichall the warp-threads are drawn through the heddles of the harness.The order in which this is done varies according to the weave and thenature of the fabric to be produced; so we distinguish: #Straight draws, Skip draws, Point draws, Section draws.# * * * * *STRAIGHT DRAWS[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 1] * * * * [Page 8][Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 2]These form the simplest and most common method of drawing-in. We begin withthe first heddle on the left side of the shaft _nearest to the warp-beam_,then take the first heddle of second shaft and so on until all the shaftsthe set contains are used in rotation. This completes one "draw," and thisoperation is repeated until all the warp-threads are taken up.The method of making the shaft nearest to the warp-beam the first, isalmost universal with the silk business and is technically called_drawing-in from back to front_.The opposite, or drawing in from _front to rear_, is used occasionally,however, and in this case makes the first heddle on the left hand side ofthe front shaft No. 1.The making out of the _Drawing-in Draft_, which must indicate thearrangement or the rotation in which the warp-threads are drawn in, can bedone in various ways, of which we will mention the two most popularmethods. The first is by using common designing paper, and indicating therotation by dots. The horizonal rows of squares represent the shafts, thevertical rows the warp-threads. Fig. 1 shows four repeats of a straightdraw on six harness marked out according to this idea. A second method isto use paper ruled horizontally, the lines representing the shafts; and todraw vertical lines for the warp-threads. The latter are made to stop on [Page 9]the lines bearing the number of the shafts into which the respectivethreads are to be drawn. Fig. 2 is such a draft, ill.u.s.trating six repeatsof a draw on four harness from "Front to Rear." * * * * *SKIP DRAWS[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 3] * * * *[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 4]The draws coming under this heading are used very extensively in silkweaving, especially for fabrics requiring a heavy warp and a large numberof shafts. Enter first the odd and then the even shafts. An 8 harness drawof this kind, of which three repeats are shown in Fig. 3, runs as follows:1, 3, 5, 7, 2, 4, 6, 8.Fig. 4 is a 12 harness draw of the same cla.s.s. * * * * *POINT DRAWS[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 5] * * * * [Page 10][Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 6] * * * *[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 7] * * * *[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 8] * * * *[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 9] [Page 11]Point draws are a combination of a regular straight draw from back to frontand one from front to back, the first and the last shafts only being usedonce, while the rest receive two ends each in one repeat of the draw. Fig.5 ill.u.s.trates a regular point draw in 2 repeats on 10 shafts. It will beseen that 14 ends make a repeat; in fact, the number of warp-threadsrequired for one draw will always be double the number of harness less 2,hence a 12 harness regular point draw will require 22 warp-threads for arepeat.The drawing-in draft ill.u.s.trated in Fig. 6 is a slight variation of theregular point draw; it consists, as will be seen, of a draw from back tofront, and also a full one from front to back, there by causing a _doublepoint_.Another change from the regular point draw is ill.u.s.trated in Figs. 7 and 8;this cla.s.s may be called _Broken point draws_, because a new draw is begunbefore the other one is complete. Fig. 9 also comes in this cla.s.s andrepresents a _zigzag draw_ on 10 harness.The drawing-in drafts which we have described under the head of "Pointdraws," are used mostly to obtain the various pointed and zigzag effects. * * * * *SECTION DRAWS[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 10] * * * * [Page 12][Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 11] * * * *[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 12] * * * *[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 13] * * * *[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 14] * * * * [Page 13][Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 15]This division of drawing-in drafts is used extensively in silkmanufacturing; for instance, in all fabrics having a ground warp and abinder warp, also in double-face goods, or where two different weaves arecombined in one effect.One or more threads are drawn on the first section, then one or more on asecond and third, if the harness is divided in so many sets.The following examples will ill.u.s.trate the principle of these draws.In Fig. 10, shafts 1, 2, 3, 4 from the first set, shafts 5 and 6 thesecond, 8 threads are drawn straight on the first, then 2 on the secondsection.Fig. 11, first set shafts 1 to 6 inclusive, second set shafts 7 and 8.Fig. 12 is drawn end and end on two sections having 8 shafts each.Figs. 13, 14 and 15, while not strictly belonging to the cla.s.s of sectiondraws, may, however, be considered under this heading. The idea is to drawa certain number of ends in one part of the harness and another group inanother part, be it straight, point or skip, which will cause the effect onthe cloth to be accordingly transposed or broken up. [Page 15] * * * * *THE WEAVES AND THEIR CONSTRUCTIONIn any woven fabric we distinguish two systems of threads, the _Warp orChain_, running lengthways in the cloth, and the _Filling or Weft_,crossing the former at right angles.This crossing or interlacing consists of every individual warp-thread beingplaced alternately under and over one or more threads of the fillingsystem. The arrangement of this interlacing is technically called the_Weave_, and the variety in which the points of crossing can be distributedis practically endless.It is princ.i.p.ally the weave that lends to a fabric its character,influenced, of course, by the material used, the size and tension of thethreads and the combination of the colors.The weaves are divided into three main cla.s.ses: _the Foundation weaves_. Inthe silk business they are known under the following names: #The Taffeta Weave, The Serge Weave, The Satin Weave.#In the foundation weaves each thread effects only one crossing in onerepeat of the weave, and the points of interlacing occur in a givenrotation. A repeat in the foundation weaves comprises the same number ofwarp-threads as of _picks_ or filling threads, and if this number is 8, for [Page 16]instance, the weave is called an 8-shaft or an 8-harness weave. In markingout a weave, the warp-threads are represented by vertical lines, thefilling by horizontal ones, or in each case by the s.p.a.ce between theselines. The places where a warp-thread lies over the filling are marked withpaint or simply with a cross. In a similar manner we mark out the _chaindraft_, which indicates the rotation in which the shafts are raised. * * * * * [Page 17]THE TAFFETA WEAVE[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 16] * * * *[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 17] [Page 18]This is the simplest and oldest method of interlacing. The odd numbers ofwarp-threads cross the even numbers after every pick; hence of twowarp-threads one will always go over the first pick and under the second,and the other end under the first and over the second pick. Taffeta cloth,therefore, has the same appearance on both sides, and in cotton and woolweaving this weave is technically--and properly indeed--called the _PlainWeave_. It has the smallest repeat, 2 warp-threads and 2 picks, and theexchanging of warp and filling is the most frequent possible. The cloththus produced is firmer and stronger than that obtained with any otherweave.Fig. 16 is a taffeta on 4 shafts straight draw, the draft executed in themanner which we have already mentioned in explaining the drawing-in drafts.Fig. 17 on common designing paper, ill.u.s.trates a taffeta made on 8-harness,skip draw.Be it mentioned that the drawing-in draft and the chain draft will be addedthroughout this work, the former over the weave to correspond with therespective warp-threads, the latter to the right of the drawing-in draft. * * * * * [Page 19]GROS DE TOURS WEAVES[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 18] * * * *[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 19]In this weave the working of the warp is the same as in taffeta, exceptthat instead of one pick, two or more are inserted in the same shed. It ismostly used in selvedges, where it serves to give more firmness to the edgeof an otherwise loosely woven cloth, and prevents the weaving ahead of theedge in a tight weave. Gros de Tours is sometimes used, especially whencotton or wool filling is employed, with a view to lay two picks nicelyside by side, whereas a thread entered two ply with the taffeta weave willalways receive some twist, which may disturb the perfect evenness of thefabric.Fig. 18 is a Gros de Tours with two picks on four harness straight through.Fig. 19 ill.u.s.trates this weave with three picks drawn end and end on twosections of four shafts each. * * * * * [Page 20]SERGE or TWILL WEAVESWhile the taffeta weave produces either an entirely smooth fabric, or onewith a distinct transverse rib as in gros-grain, the twill weave formsdiagonal lines on the cloth, running either from left to right or fromright to left.To make a twill, not less than three ends and three picks are required, ofwhich each thread floats over two of the other system and interlaces withthe third. The rotation of the interlacing is always consecutive, that isit moves with each succeeding pick one thread to the right (or to the leftif the lines are to run in that direction). If warp and filling have thesame texture, that is the same number of threads in a given s.p.a.ce, thetwill lines will form an angle of 45; if the warp stands closer than thefilling, the incline will be steeper, and in the opposite case the anglewill approach more the horizontal.The weaves can be expressed in numbers, for instance: the 3-end twill warpeffect would be marked 2-1, which indicates that each warp-thread goes overtwo and under one pick.Twill weaves are called _evensided_ when the arrangement of "warp up" and"filling up" are evenly balanced, and _unevensided_ if either warp orfilling predominate on the face of the fabric; the latter cla.s.s istherefore subdivided in _Warp effects_ and _Filling effects_.In the following a number of serge weaves are ill.u.s.trated, the Frenchdesignations being added in some cases, as they are still extensively usedin the trade. [Page 21] * * * * *FILLING EFFECTS_Satin de Lyon,_ 2-1.On 6 harness straight through.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 20] * * * *_Levantine,_ 3-1On 8 shafts skip draw.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 21] * * * * [Page 22]_Polonaise,_ 5-1On 12 harness skip draw.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 22] * * * *_Serge grosse cote,_ 7-1On 8 shafts straight through.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 23] * * * * [Page 23]_Serge remaine,_ 6-2On 8 shafts skip draw.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 24] * * * *_Serge,_ 5-1, 1-1.On 8 shafts skip draw.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 25] * * * * [Page 24]_Serge,_ 4-2, 1-1, 1-1.On 10 harness straight through.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 26] * * * *_Serge,_ 7-1, 1-1, 1-1, 1-1, 1-1.On 16 shafts skip draw.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 27] * * * * * [Page 25]WARP EFFECTS_Levantine,_ 3-1.On 4 shafts straight through.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 28] * * * *_Serge,_ 5-1, 1-1.On 8 shafts skip draw.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 29] * * * * * [Page 26]EVENSIDED TWILLS_Surah,_ 2-2On 4 shafts straight through.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 30] * * * *_Croise,_ 3-3, 2-2, 1-1.On 12 shafts straight through.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 31] * * * * [Page 27]_Serge,_ 7-7, 1-1, 1-1, 1-1On 20 shafts skip draw.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 32] * * * * *POINTED TWILLSin the direction of the filling and also of the warp.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 33]On 4 shafts point draw, weave 3-1. * * * * [Page 28][Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 34] On 6 shafts point draw, drawn as follows: Eighteen ends from back to front and 4 ends from front to rear, weave 5-1. * * * *[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 35]On 8 shafts pointed draw, weave 5-1, 1-1. * * * * [Page 29][Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 36]On 10 shafts, with weave 3-3, drawn as follows: 7 threads from back to front. 3 " " front to rear. 6 " " back to front. 2 " " front to rear. * * * *[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 37]On 6 shafts straight draw, pointed weave 5-1. * * * * [Page 30][Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 38]On 8 shafts straight through, pointed weave 5-1, 1-1. * * * *[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 39]_Broken pointed twill_, on 8 harness. * * * * [Page 31][Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 40]On 6 shafts point draw, pointed weave 5-1. * * * *[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 41]On 8 shafts point draw, pointed weave 5-1, 1-1. * * * * [Page 32][Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 42]_Fancy twill_, on 16 shafts straight draw. * * * * *SATIN WEAVESThe distinct diagonal lines which characterize the cla.s.s of weaves.e.xplained in the previous chapter are absent in the satin weaves; and whilethe interlacing in the former is done in a strictly consecutive order, weendeavor to scatter the points of st.i.tching in the latter as much aspossible, in order to create an entirely smooth and brilliant surface on [Page 33]the cloth.In all satins the number of ends in a repeat is the same in warp andfilling.The lowest repeat of a regular satin comprises five threads of each system,and the interlacing is done in the following order: The 1st pick with the 1st warp-thread " 2d " " 3d " " 3d " " 5th " " 4th " " 2d " " 5th " " 4th "Fig. 43 ill.u.s.trates this weave. An examination of the rotation, as givenabove, will show that every warp-thread intersects two picks apart from itsneighbor. The number "2" is in this case what is technically known as the_counter_, that is the number which indicates the points of interlacing byadding it to number 1 and continuing so until all the warp-threads aretaken up.The following is the rule to find the counter for any regular satin:Divide the number of harness into two parts, which must neither be equalnor have a common divisor. Any of these two numbers can be used forcounting off, but usually the smaller one is taken. According to this rulewe obtain a regular satin On 5 harness with counter 2 " 7 " " 2 or 3 " 8 " " 3 " 9 " " 2 or 4 " 10 " " 3 " 11 " " 2, 3, 4 or 5 " 12 " " 5 " 13 " " 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6 " 14 " " 3 or 5 " 15 " " 2, 4 or 7 " 16 " " 3, 5 or 7. [Page 34]The 4 harness broken twill, Fig. 53, is sometimes cla.s.sed among the satins.The 6 harness satin, Fig. 54, is irregular; as a counter cannot be derivedfrom number 6 by the given rule. The rotation generally used is 1, 3, 6, 4,2, 5. * * * * *Regular Satins_5 harness Satin, "Satin de Chine."_Straight draw, counter 2.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 43] * * * *_7 harness Satin, "Satin Merveilleux."_Skip draw, counter 2.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 44] * * * * [Page 35]_7 harness satin_Straight draw, counter 3.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 45] * * * *_8 harness satin "d.u.c.h.ese"_Skip draw, counter 3.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 46] * * * * [Page 36]_9 harness satin_Straight draw, counter 4.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 47] * * * *_10 harness satin_Straight draw, counter 3.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 48] * * * * [Page 37]_11 harness satin_Skip draw, counter 5.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 49] * * * *_12 harness satin_Skip draw, counter 5.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 50] * * * * [Page 38]_16 harness satin_On 2 sections of 8 shafts each, drawn end and end, counter 7.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 51] * * * * [Page 39]_8 harness satin, warp effect._Straight draw, counter 3.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 52] * * * * *IRREGULAR SATINS_Satin Turc._On 4 shafts straight through.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 53] * * * * [Page 40]_Satin a la Reine_On 6 shafts straight draw.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 54] * * * * [Page 41] * * * * *DERIVATIVE WEAVES#1. From the Taffeta#_Royale_ is a modification of the regular Gros de Tours, inasmuch as therib line, which in the latter runs straight across the cloth, is broken offafter a given number of warp-threads. These groups, which may comprise 8,12 or more threads, will interlace each one pick higher than the precedingone._Royale of 8 ends_On 2 sections of 4 shafts each.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 55] * * * *_Velours Ottoman or Faille francaise._In order to obtain a broader rib than that of Gros de Tours, and at thesame time to lend firmness to the fabric, we add to the ground warp, whichforms the ribs, another or binder warp, which works continually taffeta, [Page 42]while the ground warp changes only every 3 or 4 picks for the rib._Faille francaise._ 4 ends of ground on the first section of 8 shafts, skip draw. 1 " binder " second " 2 "[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 56] * * * *_Velours Ottoman without a Binder-warp._In this weave, of which Fig. 57 ill.u.s.trates a specimen, comprising 8warp-threads and 32 picks in a repeat, the rib contains 4 picks. Of the 8warp-threads, 3 float over and 3 under the rib, while the 2 others bindtaffeta, which latter function is executed by 2 other threads in the nextrib. [Page 43][Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 57] * * * * *2. From the TwillsOne variety is obtained by interlacing the warp-threads alternately one ormore picks behind, and then a number of picks ahead of their respectiveneighbors; so the complete arrangement of the points of binding in a repeatwill generally form two parallel diagonal lines. This will cause the twilllines to appear less p.r.o.nounced than is the case in the regular twill, andthe character of the fabric approaches more that of the satin. [Page 44][Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 58]_Satin Serge._On 8 shafts, straight draw. * * * *[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 59]_Cote Satinee._On 16 harness, skip draw. * * * *_Rhadzimir-Surah 2-2._ After a certain number of picks of the regular surahall the warp-threads are crossed in two's thereby causing a sort of a ribor cut line across the fabric. [Page 45]_Rhadzimir of 4 picks._On 8 shafts, straight draw.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 60] * * * *_Rhadzimir of 6 picks._On 8 shafts, straight draw.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 61] * * * * * [Page 46]3. From the Satin Weave_Satin Soleil_ shows a satin-like surface with a cross line appearance.Fig. 62 ill.u.s.trates it as made on 8 shafts, straight draw.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 62] * * * *_Satin Grec_ is a 12-harness satin, in which a taffeta point is added toeach place of interlacing, thus giving the cloth a much firmer hand. Fig.63 represents this weave on 12 shafts, skip draw. [Page 47][Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 63] * * * *_Peau de Soie._ An 8-shaft satin with one point added on the right or leftto the original spots, giving the fabric a somewhat grainy appearence. Fig.64 represents a peau de soie on 8 shafts, straight through.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 64] * * * * [Page 48]_Fleur de Soie._ The face is a satin de Lyon (2-1 twill), with a backinginterlaced on the 12-shaft satin principle, Fig. 65, on 12 shafts, skipdraw.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 65] * * * * * [Page 49]CANNELE and REPP WEAVESare in their construction related to the taffeta, and are used mostly inthe form of stripes as an additional ornament to a fabric. The threadsgoing into the composition of these effects exchange continually fromtaffeta interlacing to floating over a certain number of threads, and mustbe introduced either in warp or filling close enough to make the floatscover up the taffeta work entirely, and thus enable the material used toshow up with the full brilliancy it possesses.Cannele effects can be produced in two distinct ways. One is to let everyindividual thread work alternately taffeta and float, while in the othermethod one thread weaves always taffeta, and a second thread is used forthe cannele exclusively. These latter threads must come from a separatewarp, which is introduced to embellish the ground or taffeta part of thefabric.The floating threads can either st.i.tch all on one pick and so form acontinuous cut line, or be divided in groups, of which one will bind in themiddle of the floats of the other group. The following designs show boththe face and backside of the respective weaves: [Page 50]_Alternating Cannele_ of 6 picks.On 4 shafts, straight through.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 66] * * * *_Canelle_ (2 beams). Over 3 picks, interlacing on every fourth pick, drawnend and end on 2 sections of 4 shafts each.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 67] * * * * [Page 51]_Cannele_ over 5 picks, binding on the sixth, but every second threadadvanced 3 picks (to the middle of the float of the first thread), drawnend and end on 2 sections of 4 shafts each.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 68] * * * * [Page 52]_Cannele_ arranged in groups of 8 threads, floating over 6 picks andbinding on the seventh and eighth, drawn on 2 sections, with 4 shafts infirst and 2 in second section.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 69] * * * *_Repp_ on 8 shafts straight through. Rotation of filling. 1 pick taffeta, 1pick float (rib).[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 70] * * * * [Page 53]_Repp_ of 8 threads, on 2 sections of 4 shafts each, 8 ends per section.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 71] * * * *_Repp_ of 5 threads, binding on the sixth; every second pick binds on themiddle of the first pick. On 6 harness straight draw.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 72] * * * * [Page 54]_Repp_ in groups, floating over 6 ends and binding on the seventh andeighth on 8 shafts straight draw.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 73] * * * * * [Page 55]DOUBLE FACED FABRICSIn this cla.s.s we find either two systems of warp or of filling so combinedthat only one will be visible on either side. The color on one side isgenerally different from the other, and so may the interlacing be of adifferent nature on face and back. In the latter case great care must beexercised not to allow the weave on one side to disturb the one on theother, and as a rule the points of interlacing of the first warp or fillingsystem are placed as much as possible in the middle of the floats of thesecond. This will prevent either color or weave to be seen on the oppositeside, as the floats of one side will naturally lay themselves over thebinders of the other. The number of ends in a repeat of the two weaves musteither be alike or one a multiple of the other.Warp Effects_Levantine_ on 8 shafts straight draw.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 74] * * * * [Page 56]_Serge_ 6-2 on 2 sections of 8 shafts each.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 75] * * * *8 _shaft satin_ on 2 sections of 8 harness each.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 76] * * * * [Page 57]12 _shaft satin_ on 2 sections of 12 shafts each.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 77] * * * *_Cannele_ of 8 picks on 2 sections of 4 shafts each.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 78] * * * * * [Page 58]FILLING EFFECTS_Serge_ 5-1 on 6 harness straight draw.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 79] * * * *10 _harness satin_ on 10 shafts skip draw.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 80] * * * * [Page 59]_Repp_ on 2 sections of 4 shafts each, 8 threads per section.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 81] * * * * [Page 60]PEKINSWith this name we designate fabrics in which stripes of a differentinterlacing run in the direction of the warp. In combining these weaves itis advantageous to have them contrast distinctly, for instance, a shortweave such as taffeta or Gros de Tours, with a longer and looser one suchas satin, serge or cannele, also changes from warp to filling effects. Caremust be taken to arrange the joining of the two weaves so that the lastthread of one weave will cross the first thread of the other. This willprevent the threads from either stripe to slide over into the other, and somake a clean cut line.#Pekin.# A stripe of 2 dents of 8 ends each, 8 shaft Satin, on 8 shafts straight draw. 12 " 2 " Taffeta " 4 " " "[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 82] * * * * [Page 61]#Pekin#. A stripe of 12 ends Cannele of 6 picks on 1st section of 4 shafts. 12 " Repp " 6 threads on 2d and 3d section of 2 shafts each.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 83] * * * * [Page 62]#Pekin.# A stripe of 10 ends 5 leaf Satin on the 1st section of 5 shafts straight draw. 4 " Taffeta " 3d " 2 " " " 18 " Serge 3-1, 1-1 " 2d " 6 " " "[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 84] * * * * * [Page 63]BAYADeRESWhile pekins are formed by warp stripes, bayadere shows us stripes ofdifferent weaves running in the direction of the filling. The rules givenin the previous chapter as to the joining of the weaves will also applyhere. The warp which was raised on the last pick of the weave must staydown wherever possible on the first pick of the following weave. The numberof shafts employed must go up evenly in the repeat of each one of theweaves that go into the make up of the bayadere.#Bayadere# A stripe of 24 picks Gros de Tours } } on 8 shafts straight through. " 8 " 8-shaft Satin, }[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 85] * * * * [Page 64]#Bayadere# A stripe of 18 picks 6-shaft Satin } " 6 " Serge 5-1, } on 6 shafts, straight draw. " 4 " Taffeta, }[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 86] * * * * * [Page 65]CHECKS AND PLAIDSIf pekin and bayadere stripes are combined, we obtain checked fabrics, andof these an endless variety and pleasing effects can be produced with theaid of suitable color combinations.#Check# of 16 threads and 12 picks of the 4 end broken twill, and 16 " " 12 " " Royale of 8 threads, drawn on 4 sections of 4 shafts each.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 87] * * * * [Page 66]#Check# of 20 threads and 16 picks of 8-shaft Satin, " 20 " " 16 " " Taffeta, 4 " " Surah 3-1, drawn on 2 sections of 8 shafts each.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 88] * * * * * [Page 67]DECOMPOSITIONUnder the name of _Disposition_ we comprise all those points and detailswhich we must ascertain before we can proceed with the construction of afabric. They are: 1. #The weave.# 2. #Length and width of the cloth.# 3. #The stock and the dyeing thereof.# 4. #Reed calculation# (number of dents and ends per inch and total number of dents required). 5. #Drawing-in the warp in harness and reed.# 6. #Texture and arrangement of warp# (warping ticket) 7. #Arrangement of harness.# 8. #Reduction of filling.# 9. #Calculation of warp and filling.# 10. #Finis.h.i.+ng.# 11. #Calculation of cost.# [Page 68]1. THE WEAVEIf a given sample is to be reproduced or imitated, it must be a.n.a.lyzed, andthe following hints will greatly facilitate this operation to the beginner.Cut the sample straight on two sides, and draw out a number of warp andfilling threads until there is a small fringe of perhaps of an inch. Thiswill allow a thread to be raised a little for examination, without dangerof its falling out of the fabric. In most cases it is easier to dissect thefilling side, that is, the interlacing of each warp-thread in the threadsof the filling system. With the help of the microscope or counting gla.s.s wecan easily determine over and under how many picks that thread pa.s.ses andthe points of interlacing are accordingly marked on designing paper. Thisbeing done for at least the length of a repeat warpways, we take it out andexamine the following thread, and so on until the repeat filling-ways iscomplete. It is advisable to ascertain how many picks ahead or back of thefirst examined thread the next following one binds before taking the formerout.A knowledge of the construction of weaves as explained in the foregoingchapters will enable us to determine the weave of a simple pattern bymerely raising a warp-thread with a needle on any point of interlacing andcounting off how many picks apart from this place it makes an impression.2. LENGTH AND WIDTH OF THE FABRICTo the length and width which the finished product is to have, we must adda certain allowance for shrinkage and _taking up_ of warp during weaving.It may differ from one to ten per cent., according to the texture and weaveof the fabric, and can be ascertained with sufficient accuracy bystretching out and measuring a thread of warp and filling and comparingtheir length with the respective measurements of the sample to bereproduced. [Page 69]3. THE STOCK AND ITS DYEUnder this heading we must give the particulars as to nature, _twist_,_quality_ and _size_ of the silk, and the directions for the dyeing,whether _bright_ or _souple_, and in what colors, also whether to beweighted or not.The size is generally ascertained (in practical work) by comparing it withother silk of which the exact count is known. Another method is to countthe number of coc.o.o.n threads which a thread of the sample contains, addingto that 1/3 or , according to the quality of the silk; the result will bethe count in deniers. To obtain it in drams, divide the latter number by17,3 as 1 dram is equal to 17,3 deniers.Suppose we find 20 coc.o.o.n ends in a thread of silk: add 1/3, and we have26-2/3 deniers, which, divided by 17,3 make 1,54 drams.As silk is always more or less uneven, it is safer to count the coc.o.o.nfibers of several threads and to take average thereof.It requires the experience of years to judge with any degree of certaintyas to the origin and quality of silk, whether it be "cla.s.sical," "extra,""sublime," etc.There are machines wherewith to ascertain exactly the twist, that is, thenumber of turns the silk has received in the throwing process.In the dyeing we distinguish two great cla.s.ses, of which the namesthemselves give a good definition. "Bright" has a brilliant l.u.s.ter, while"souple" has more of a dull, subdued appearance. To find out whether thesilk has been weighted in the dyeing process, we may compare it with othersilk of which the exact conditions are known, or we may burn a smallquant.i.ty of it. Unweighted silk does not burn readily and leaves a residueof white ashes, while heavy weighted silk burns lively, leaving black,charry ashes. [Page 70]4. REED CALCULATIONWe count the number of repeats of the weave in a given s.p.a.ce, generally or inch, and multiply this with the number of threads one repeatcontains, which gives us the reduction of the warp.Suppose we had a taffeta, which, as we know, has only 2 ends to a repeat,and counted 30 interlacings per inch on one pick; we would have 60threads per inch or 240 per one inch. In this case the reed may be 80 by3 or 60 by 4.Another instance: In an 8-shaft satin we count 10 warp-threads, which bindon the same pick in inch; this, multiplied by 8, equals 80 ends per , or320 per one inch; the reed will be an 80 with 4 in a dent or a 64 by 5.In short, the number of the reed is found by dividing the number ofwarp-threads that are to go in one dent, in the number of ends per inch.Sometimes, the reed marks are clearly visible in a sample by holding thelatter against the light. Silk fabrics move with very few exceptions withinthe limits of 50 and 90 dents per inch.To learn the full number of dents required for the width of the cloth,simply multiply the dents per one inch with the width, adding a certainallowance for shrinkage. The edges, of course, must also be taken inconsideration, and very often the dents that are taken up by the latter areused to counter-balance that shrinkage.5. DRAWING-IN THE WARP IN HARNESS AND REEDHere we must specify the number of dents that contain the same number ofends, and whether the latter are single or double, also the number ofshafts and the method of drawing-in. [Page 71]6. WARPING TICKETTo make out the warping ticket, we need to ascertain the total number ofends, whether leased single or double, and the arrangement of the colors.7. HARNESS ARRANGEMENTThis is governed by the number of ends to be drawn in and the necessaryshafts. If we have, for instance, 100 threads per inch to be drawn on 4shafts, we must give each shaft 25 heddles per inch. There are generallybetween 25 and 45 heddles per inch on one shaft.8. REDUCTION OF THE FILLINGHere we state the number of picks per inch, give directions as to doubling,if such is necessary, and if more than one color or shuttle is used, therotation thereof.9. CALCULATION OF WARP AND FILLINGThe system adopted in this country for specifying the size of silk is basedon the weight in drams (avoirdupois) of a skein containing 1000 yards. Askein, thus weighing 5 drams, is technically called 5-dram silk. The numberof yards of 1-dram silk to a pound must accordingly be 256000. The formulasfor figuring the amount of silk required for a piece of cloth are asfollows:Warp Calculation _Multiply_: Number of endslengthcount ----------------------------- _Divide by_: 1000 yards256 drams [Page 72]Filling Calculation _Multiply:_ Picksxplywidthlength of piececount -------------------------------------- = lbs. _Divide by:_ 1000 yards256 drams The result in both cases will be in pounds.The system of grading the silk which is in vogue in Europe, and which isemployed by a number of mills on this side, is as follows: 1 skein of 500 meters, weighing 0,05 grams = 1 denier international or 1 " 476 " " 0,053 " = 1 " Turin system or 1 " 476 " " 0,051 " = 1 " Milan "The warp calculation, taking the international denier, would run: ends in warplengthdenier0,05 gram -------------------------------------- _divided by:_ 500 meters for the filling: Picks per meterxplywidthdenier0,05 gram --------------------------------------------- _divided by:_ 500 meters Result in metric weight, kilograms and grams.10. FINIs.h.i.+NGGive directions as to the process of finis.h.i.+ng to which the goods are to besubjected, whether to be pressed, calendered, sized, moired, etc.11. CALCULATION OF COSTIf all the foregoing conditions are ascertained, and a sample or a piece ofthe fabric executed, it remains to the manufacturer to determine the exactfigure at which he can produce the article. That this must be done withgreat accuracy is naturally of the utmost importance, and the calculator [Page 73]must know in the first place the raw stock prices, and also be acquaintedwith the details of the manufacturing process and the rates of wages paidtherein. As a rule, the manufacturer establishes a scale of prices coveringall the items of labor cost, mill expenses, etc., and uses this as a basisfor his calculations.A rule or formula for this operation cannot very well be given, as themethods vary in almost every establishment, each choosing the one bestadapted to its ideas or dictates of circ.u.mstances and conditions. [Page 75]DISPOSITION 1_Taffeta glace_[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 89] [Page 76] #Length and Width#--One piece 100 yards long, 18 inches wide. #Stock and Dye#--_Warp._--Ital. Organ., 24/26 deniers = 1,47 drams, brown, bright, 14/16 oz. _Filling._--j.a.pan Tram, 28/30 deniers = 1,65 drams, gold, bright 14/16 oz. #Reed Calculation#--Per 1 inch, 70 dents at 3 single ends. " 18 " 1313 " add 13 " = 1% for shrinkage ---- Total 1326 dents. #Drawing in#--1st edge, 9 dents at 3 double ends. Ground, 1308 " at 3 single " 2d edge, 9 " at 3 double " on 6 shafts, straight through. #Warping Ticket#--1st edge, 27 double ends, brown. Ground, 3924 single " " 2d edge, 27 double " " ---- Total 4032 single ends. Length of warp 110 yards, including 10% for take up. #Harness#--6 shafts, 3978 heddles per 19 inches. 1 " 35 " " 1 " #Reduction of Filling#--Per inch, 100/102 picks, 2 ends. #Warp Calculation#--? lbs = 4032 ends. 1 end = 110 yards. 1000 yards = 1,47 drams. 256 drams = 1 lb. 100 = 104 (4% waste). 40321101,47104 ------------------- = 2,65 lbs., or 2 lbs. 10,4 oz. 1000256100 [Page 77] #Filling Calculation#--? lbs. = 100 yards 1 yard = 36 inches. 1 inch = 102 picks. 2 / ends. 1 pick = 19 inches. 36 inches = 1 yard 1000 yards = 1,65 drams. 256 drams = 1 lb. 100 = 108 (8% waste). 10036102219165108 ------------------------- = 2,73 lbs., or 2 lbs. 11,7 ozs. 361000256100 * * * * [Page 79]DISPOSITION 2_Surah 3-1_[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 90] [Page 80] #Length and Width#--1 piece 50 yards long, 23 in. wide. #Stock and Dyeing#--_Warp._--Ital. Organ., 1,30 drams = 20/24 deniers, black, bright, 40/50% = 22/24 ozs. _Filling._--Cotton No. 120/2 black. #Reed Calculation#--Per 1 inch, 80 dents at 2 single ends. " 23 inch, 1880 " add 36 " = 2% for shrinkage. ---- Total 1916 dents. #Drawing-in#--1st edge, 8 dents, 2 double ends. Ground, 1900 " 2 single " 2d edge, 8 " 2 double " on 4 shafts, straight draw. #Warping Ticket#--1st edge, 16 double ends, black. Ground, 3800 single " " 2d edge, 16 double " " ---- Total 3864 single ends. Warp 54 yards long = 8% for take up. #Harness#--4 shafts, 3832 heddles per 24 inches. 1 " 40 " " 1 " #Reduction of Filling#--Per 1 inch, 120 picks, 1 end. #Warp Calculation#--? lbs. = 4264 ends. 1 end = 54 yards. 1000 yards = 1,30 drams. 256 drams = 1 lb. 100 = 104 (4% waste). 3864541,30104 ------------------ = 1,10 lbs., or 1 lb. 1,06 oz. 1000256100 [Page 81] #Filling Calculation#-?lbs. = 50 yards. 1 yard = 36 inches. 1 inch = 120 picks. 1 pick = 24 inches. 36 inches = 1 yard 840 yards = 1 skein. (No. 120/2) 60 skeins = 1 lb. 100 = 110 (10% waste). 503612024110 ------------------ = 3.14 lbs., or 3 lbs. 2.24 ozs. 3684060100 * * * * [Page 83]#DISPOSITION 3#_Satin d.u.c.h.esse._[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 91] [Page 84] #Length and Width#--One warp 300 yards long, 10 pieces of 60 yards 23 inches wide, 2 pieces in width, with one cut edge. #Stock and Dyeing#--_Warp._-- Ital. Organ., 1-55/100 drams, black, bright, 20/22 oz. _Filling._-- j.a.p. Tram., 1-8/10 and 2-7/10 drams, black, souple, 40/44 oz. We should use for this fabric 1 end filling, 5-thread, 4-5/10 drams, but as we have none of this size on hand, we take: 1 end, 2 thread, 1-8/10 drams, and 1 end, 3 thread, 2-7/10 drams. #Reed Calculation#--1 inch, 66 dents, 4 single ends. 46 " 3036 " 54 " (1% shrinkage). ---- Total ... 3090 dents. #Drawing-in#-- { 1st edge, { 2 dents, 62, black. { 13 " 42, white. Ground, 1514 " 41, black. { 2 " 62 " Cut Edge { 1 " 24, " { 3 " empty. { 1 " 24, " Ground, 1514 " 41, black. 2d edge, { 2 " 62, black. { 13 " 42, white. Satin on 8 shafts, straight draw. Cross-thread for split edge on 3 shafts, see design. #Warping Ticket#-- Edge, { 12/2 black. } { 52/2 white. } Ground, 6056/1 black. } twice over. Edge, { 52/2 white. } { 12/2 black. } 12208 ends black, { 318 yards long. 416 " white, { = 6% shrinkage. 2/4 black for ground thread, 300 yards long. 2/4 " " whip " 360 " " each one on a separate little roll. [Page 85] #Harness#--8 shafts, 12368 heddles, 47 in 1 " 33 " 1 " for the split edge 3 shafts, of which one has only half a heddle. #Filling#--Per 1 in., 80 picks, 2 ends (as described before). #Warp Calculation#--? lbs. = 12224 ends, black (416 white). 1 end = 318 yards. 1,000 yards = 1,55 drams. 256 drams = 1 lb. 100 = 104 (4% waste). (416) 122243181.55104 -------------------- = 24,477 lbs. org. black. 1000256100 = 0,833 " " white. #Filling Calculation#--? lbs. = 300 yards. 1 yard = 36 inches. 1 inch = 80 picks. 1 pick = 47 inches. 36 inches = 1 yard. 1000 yards = 4,5 drams. 256 drams = 1 lb. 100 = 108 (8% waste). 3003680474,5108 ---------------------- = 21,414 lbs. 361000256100 * * * * [Page 87]DISPOSITION 4_Armure Satinee_[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 92] [Page 88] #Length and Width#--One piece 60 yards long, 19 in. wide. #Stock and Dyeing#--_Warp._--j.a.p. Organ., 1,48 drams, black, bright, 18/20 oz. _Filling._--3 threads j.a.p. Tram., 2,95 drams, black, bright, 24/26 oz. #Reed Calculation#--Per 1 inch, 60 dents4 single ends. " 19 " 1140 " 32 " (3% for shrinkage). ---- Total ... 1172 dents. #Drawing-in#--1st edge, 12 dents 4 double. Ground, 1148 " 4 single. 2d edge, 12 " 4 double. on 12 shafts, straight through, or on 6 shafts, as design indicates. #Warping Ticket#--1st edge, 48/2 black. Ground, 4592/1 " 2d edge, 48/2 " ------ Total ... 4784 single ends 64 yards long. =6% for take up. #Harness#--6 shafts, 4688 heddles per 19 inches. 1 " 40 " " 1 " #Reduction of Filling#--Per 1 inch, 104 picks, 2 ends. #Warp Calculation#--? lbs. = 4784 ends. 1 end = 64 yards. 1000 yards = 1,48 drams. 256 drams = 1 lb. 100 = 104 (4% waste). 4784641,48104 ------------------ = 1,84 lbs., or 1 lb. 13,44 ozs. 1000256100 [Page 89] #Filling Calculation#--? lbs. = 60 yards. 1 yard = 36 inches. 1 inch = 104 } picks. 2 } ends. 1 pick = 19 inches. 36 inches = 1 yard. 1000 yards = 2,95 drams. 256 drams = 1 lb. 100 = 108 (8% waste). 6036104219,52,95108 --------------------------- = 3,03 lbs., or 3 lbs. 0,48 ozs. 361000256100 * * * * [Page 91]DISPOSITION 5_Surface Printed Armure._[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 93] [Page 92] #Length and Width#--One piece 50 yards long, 18 in. wide. #Stock and Dyeing#--_Warp._--Ital. Organ., 1,50 drams, 24/28 deniers, white bright, pure dye. _Filling._--5 thread Ital. Tram., 4 drams, 13/14 deniers, white, bright, pure dye. #Reed Calculation#--Per 1 inch, 52 dents, 22. " 18 " 962 " 20 " (2% shrinkage). ---- Total ... 982 dents. #Drawing-in#--1st edge, 7 dents, 42 gros de Tours. Ground, 968 " 22 armure 2d edge, 7 " 42 gros de Tours. Armure ground on 12 shafts, straight draw. Gros de Tours, edges on 4 shafts. #Warping Ticket#--Ground warp, 54 yards. 1936/2 white. Gros de Tours edges, 55 yards. 228/2 white, on separate rolls. Total ... 3984 single ends. #Harness#--12 shafts, 1936 heddles, per 18 inches. 1 " 8-2/3 " " 1 "4 Shafts gros de Tours edges, with 28 heddles on each side. #Reduction of Filling#--Per 1 inch, 96 picks, 1 end. #Warp Calculation#--? lbs. = 3984 ends. 1 end = 54 yards. 1000 yards = 1,50 drams. 256 drams = 1 lb. 100 = 104 (4% waste). 3984541,50104 ------------------ = 1,31 lbs., or 1 lb. 4,96 ozs. 1000256100 [Page 93] #Filling Calculation#--? lbs. = 50 yards. 1 yard = 36 inches. 1 inch = 96 picks. 1 pick = 19 inches. 36 inches = 1 yard. 1000 yards = 4 drams. 256 drams = 1 lb. 100 = 108 (8% waste). 503696194108 ------------------- = 1,54 lbs., or 1 lb. 8,64 ozs. 361000256100After weaving, the small flower effects have to be printed on the cloth. * * * * [Page 95]DISPOSITION 6_Pekin_: 8 shaft satin and repp.[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 34] [Page 96] #Length and Width#--1 piece 100 yards long, 20 in. wide. { Ital. Organ., 1-35/100 drams, black, { bright, 20/22 oz. #Stock and Dyeing#--_Warp._ { Ital. Organ., 1-15/100 drams, sky, { bright, pure dye { Cotton No. 100/2, scarlet. _Filling._--3 threads, j.a.p. Tram., 2-8/10 drams, scarlet, bright, 14/16 oz. {61, black satin #Reed Calculation#--Per 1 inch, 68 dents, {62, colored " {21, " repp. " 20 " 1377 " 23 " (1% for shrinkage). ---- Total 1400 dents. #Drawing-in#--1st edge, 7 dents, 62 satin. } Ground, 34 " 61 " } 2 " 62 " } 10 " 61 " } twice } 2 " 21 repp. } over. } 10 " 61 satin. } 2 " 62 " } 39 " 61 " } 5 " 21 repp. } twice } 4 " 61 satin. } over. } 7 times 5 " 21 repp. } over. 15 " 61 satin. } 2 " 21 repp. } 15 " 61 satin. } 5 " 21 repp. } twice } 4 " 61 satin. } over. } 5 " 21 repp. } 5 " 61 satin. } 28 " 61 " } 2d edge, 7 " 62 " } Satin on 1st section of 8 shaft skip draw. Binder " 2nd " " 2 " Repp " 3d " " 2 " [Page 97]On each side of every repp stripe two ends of the satin warp must beentered on the 2 binder shafts (2d section), to prevent the ends of thesatin to slide over into the repp stripes. #Warping Ticket#--I. _Beam satin_, 106 yards. 1st edge, 42/2 black. Ground, 204/1 " } 12/2 sky. } 180/1 black. } 12/2 sky. } 234/1 black. } 48/2 sky. } 7 times over. 180/1 black. } 48/2 sky. } 30/1 black. } 168/1 " } 2d edge, 42/2 " } 6132 single ends black. 1680 " " sky. II. _Beam repp_, 110 yards. 4/1 scarlet. } 4/1 " } 10/1 " } 10/1 " } 10/1 " } 7 times over. 4/1 " } 10/1 " } 10/1 " } 10/1 " } 504 single ends scarlet cottonThis warp has to be beamed in stripes. Make out a diagram for the warperthe same as shown in Fig. 95. [Page 98][Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 95]#Harness#--Fig. 95 shows how to make a diagram of a harness for a Pekin.The heddles are marked per one shaft. As the repp stripes are only smallones, we use for the satin a full harness, that is, one without open s.p.a.cesfor the repp stripe. All together we have in the satin warp 6888 single anddouble ends to draw in; of these 252 ends are used for binders, on bothsides of the repp stripes. Thus remain for 8 shafts, 6636 heddles per 20 inches 1 " 40 " " 1 " #Reduction of Filling#--Per 1 inch, 144 picks, 1 end. #Warp Calculation#--? lbs. = 6132 ends (1680 ends sky). 1 end = 106 yards. 1000 yards = 1,35 drams (sky 1,15 drams). 256 drams = 1 lb. 100 = 104 (4% waste). 61321061,35104 ------------------- = 3,56 lbs. for black, or 3 lbs. 8,96 ozs. 1000256100 16801061,15104 ------------------- = 0,83 lbs. for sky, or 0 lbs. 13,28 ozs. 1000256100 [Page 99] ? lbs. = 504 ends. 1 end = 110 yards. 840 yards = 1 skein. (No. 100/2) 50 skeins = 1 lb. 100 = 104 (4% waste). 504110104 ------------- = 1,37 lbs. scarlet cotton, or 1 lb. 5,92 ozs. 84050100 #Filling Calculation#--? lbs. = 100 yards. 1 yard = 36 inches. 1 inch = 144 picks. 1 pick = 21 inches. 36 inches = 1 yard. 1000 yards = 2,8 drams. 256 drams = 1 lb. 100 = 108 (8% waste). 10036144212,8108 ----------------------- = 3,57 lbs., or 3 lbs. 9,12 ozs. 361000256100 * * * * * [Page 100]JACQUARD WEAVESJacquard weaves usually show on a plain ground figure or flower effects. Toobtain these effects the ground is made of one weave, say taffeta, whilethe figures or flowers are produced in another weave, say satin.We enter the warp through a jacquard harness, and according to the repeatuse a 200, 400, 600, 900, 1200, etc., hook jacquard machine, which means200, 400, 600, 900 and 1200 ends per repeat.With a 600-hook machine a larger repeat can be produced than with a499-hook machine. For instance, if we want to make a cloth the figures ofwhich are to be two inches apart, it is a two-inch repeat, and use thecount of 50/4 or 200 ends per inch, we can use a 400-hook machine, 2 in. x200 ends. But we can make this cloth also on a 1200-hook machine, only therepeat must be designed three times. The advantage of using a 1200-hookmachine with the count 50/4 is that 2, 3, 4, 6-inch repeats can beproduced, while with a 400-hook machine, only a 2-inch repeat can be made.There is no end to all the different weaves and the possible flower andother pattern effects that can be made with the jacquard machine. For ajacquard weaving plant the designing is the most important factor. * * * * *BOX LOOM WEAVES INCLUDING CREPESBox looms are required for weaves such as bayaderes, checks, plaids (seepages 63-65), bengalines, crepes, etc., where two or more shuttles areneeded to bring out the effect.For the crepes (crepe de chine, crepe georgette) only two shuttles areneeded, while plaids and other articles are made with more shuttles.To weave such articles the loom or the lay must be fitted with two or moreshuttle boxes on one or both sides of the loom. [Page 101]If a manufacturer decides to change plain looms to box looms or buy new boxlooms, it is wise to get 4 4 boxes, or four shuttle boxes on each side.With these looms about everything can be made that is called for inbox-loom effects, and as styles change, it is wise to be prepared. * * * * *MANUFACTURING COSTSThe calculator first ascertains for the warp: What silk will be used, thecost of the same, total number of ends in the warps for the amount of silk,cost of throwing, dyeing, winding, warping, twisting, entering, andweaving.Then the filling: Silk to be used, how much, cost of silk, cost ofthrowing, dyeing, winding, doubling, quilling.After this determine the cost of weaving, cloth picking, finis.h.i.+ng, factorycosts, and selling expenses.To-day most of the operations are paid by "piece work."The calculator must always take into consideration that poor raw silk orpoor dyeing make production slow, increase the cost of labor, and also thatmore waste will be made.THROWING: Regular organ usually has 16 turns per inch in the first twistand 14 turns to the inch in the second or reverse twist. Tram receives onlyone twisting, about three turns to the inch.As the warp twisting-in is paid for at so much per hundred or thousandends, no matter how short or long the warp is, it is a saving to make thewarps as long as possible, especially in raw, black and staple colors.The calculator must not forget the cost of entering the first warp in aharness, also the reeding.Most mills figure the cost of harness and reed in the expense accounts. Ifplain and fancy goods are made an extra percentage should be figured forthe latter. [Page 102]EXPENSES are figured differently, as almost every manufacturer has his ownsystem. If a mill makes only a few staple articles it is easy to put downthe cost of expens