The Voice in Singing Part 5

Prof. Helmholtz has by means of his Resonance and Electrical apparatus invented aids by which the forms of the vibrations can be perceived as well as the over-tones, and the different degrees of strength of the latter in relation to one another and to the fundamental tone can be exactly measured. In attempting by means of the above-mentioned apparatus to cause the several over-tones to sound more or less strongly with the fundamental tone, and again entirely to veil others, it became possible to Prof. Helmholtz to produce artificially most opposite timbres, as well as all the vowels of speech.

Even when, in the culture of a voice, we have advanced so far that none of the inharmonic but only the harmonic over-tones sound with the fundamental tone, we shall always find that every voice has its own peculiar _Klangfarbe_--i.e., its own characteristic timbre; and it is not possible so to form the tones of a voice that the over-tones sounding with them shall diminish proportionally according to their height. Every voice has one, mostly two, over-tones, which always predominate in every tone, every register, and give the voice its peculiar quality. When, with the first octave, the fifth above it sounds, the voice is full and mellow. A clear, sympathetic, silvery ring is produced by the sounding of the seventh with the octave immediately above it. One of the most beautiful timbres is a result of the prominence of the third with the seventh, etc. This peculiarity appears to be connected with the particular form and structure of the cavity of the mouth. That parts of the cavity of the mouth serve as a sounding-board in the formation of sound, has already been mentioned.[11]

The perfection of a tone at a certain pitch depends, in the resonance of the cavity of the mouth, upon the utterance of some vowel, to which the parts of the mouth are adjusted; and this perfection is considerably affected by even a slight variation in the timbre of the vowel, as it occurs in different dialects of the same language. On the other hand, the peculiar tones of the cavity of the mouth are almost wholly independent of age and s.e.x. The peculiar pitch of the resonance apparatus has also an influence upon the tone. Every one who knows how to play on any instrument knows that some of its tones sound sweeter and are more easily given than others; these are the tones in which the peculiar tone of the instrument and its over-tones sound together. To describe more particularly the natural laws upon which these facts rest would lead us too far away from our present purpose.

THE VOWELS

Every tone in singing usually takes the sound of some vowel.

By the greater or less distinctness of one or another of the over-tones, sounding with the fundamental tone, various timbres of the vowel are produced. But certain vowels in certain parts of the scale can be sung far more easily and sweetly than others. The investigation of this fact has taught us that a tone gains in richness when the tone corresponding to the vowel belongs to the over-tones of the fundamental tone. In the human voice, however, the tones favorable to the several vowels do not admit of being precisely determined.

In different languages and dialects the vowels have different shades, and a scarcely perceptible variation, especially in the clearer vowels, is sufficient to cause the over-tones to be heard more or less distinctly. After I had learned, with the kind a.s.sistance of Professor Helmholtz, by means of his artificial apparatus for the sharpening of the ear, to find out over-tones and to know their peculiarities, I was soon able, without any artificial help, to discover the vowels favorable to them by the fuller sound of certain tones. In the female voice all tones below the c take the character of _o_. At the c, _a_, p.r.o.nounced as in the English word _hall_, sounds the best, and at d? e pa.s.ses in to _a_, as in _man_, and at f into _a_, as in _may_. With the g the _a_ sounds again as in _man_; a b? b c are favorable to all the vowels, while d e? e sound best with _e_. After e every tone takes the coloring of _a_, as in _father_, and sounds well only with this vowel; b? c d sound again better with _e_.

As thus, above e f all the tones take the coloring of _a_ in _father_, so the tones below c take the timbre of _o_, and the most skilful artists are not able to sing all the vowels in these tones with equal clearness and purity. The female voice, therefore, has only a few tones more than an octave, upon which every one of the vowels can be distinctly sung; and again, all these tones do not afford an equally sonorous tone with every vowel.

As unfortunately our Song composers do not always keep this fact in view, as the old Italians did, and since words with the most unfavorable vowels often underlie the notes, it as often becomes necessary to mingle with the unfavorable vowel something of the sound (_Klang_) of the vowel properly belonging to the note; as, for example, in the word "ring" upon f, to sing the _i_ with a mixture of the sound (_Klang_) of _a_. Artists do this in a way of which they are for the most part unconscious, and which is always un.o.bserved by the hearer. That in every voice there are several tones upon which every vowel sounds well, finds an explanation in an observation of Professor Helmholtz. The ear is attuned to a certain tone, designated as e4 f4. To persons with very susceptible nerves these tones are often insupportable, and we often see dogs, whose sense of hearing is especially acute, run howling away when the above e4 is struck upon a violin, while to other tones they seem wholly insensible. But all the tones which are accompanied by that tone as an over-tone to which the ear is attuned, sound harmonious even with unfavorable vowels.

PARTIAL TONES

But beside the over-tones, which sound with every good, simple sound, there are other _partial tones_, which, like the long-known combination tones, do not usually present themselves to our consciousness. Combination tones were first discovered in 1745 by the organ-builder, _Sorge_. By an act of concentrated attention one hears these tones at the accord of two different tones. They lie always lower than the interval to which they belong, and arise from the meeting of the nodes of vibration of the tones producing the interval. The node of vibration is the name of that place where, after every completed vibration, the sounding body returns to its former position. When, for instance, we give the third c e, we hear the c, lying an octave lower than the third, sounding at the same time as a combination tone. For the tone c a string has two vibrations, while in the same s.p.a.ce of time e has three.

The vibration node of the c will thus, after two vibrations, coincide with the vibration node of the e. By the coincidence of these nodes of vibration is produced the number of vibrations requisite for the c below. Besides these combination tones there are summation tones, discovered by Helmholtz, which arise from the vibrations collectively (_Gesammtzahl_) belonging to the above interval, and are higher than the interval. Both kinds of partial tones have again their faint over-tones.

BEATS (DIE SCHWEBUNGEN)

We have explained the movements of the waves of sound by the movements on the surface of water, and we know that, instead of the billows and hollows that we have in the water, the air is condensed and rarefied. We know further that if two different lines of waves run along with one another, their crests and hollows fall together, and their crests become as high again and their hollows as deep again. So two tones from different sources of sound are twice as strong when they are both equally high, and a new tone of the same height added to them will still further increase the sound. But when two agitations of the surface of the water so move that the crests of one fall into the hollows of the other, their movements neutralize each other.

The same thing happens in tones when one is not struck until half the vibrations of the preceding tone are concluded. But if the sounding bodies vary in only a small part of a vibration sound, they will be alternately stronger and weaker, and this is termed beats (_Schwebungen_), which are only produced by tones _very near to each other_. Those intervals whose combination and over-tones so fall together that many beats are produced, sound harsh and disagreeable, and we call them dissonances.

Those intervals in which few or no beats occur are called consonances. As the combination or interfering tones, as well as the beats, have importance and interest only in harmonizing several voices, in tuning pianos, as well as in composition in general, and as we have in view in these pages only the culture of single voices, we cannot further enlarge on these discoveries, interesting as they are. According to the purpose of this little work, I introduce only so much of the latest investigations and discoveries as will help to show the prevailing evils of our mode of teaching singing, and, by their practical application to the business of instruction, serve to improve the vocal art. But whoever has an interest in this branch of science will find in the invaluable work of Helmholtz, "Die Lehre von den Tonempfindungen,"

an abundance of most interesting observations and of the most thoroughly scientific ill.u.s.trations of the theory of music, and of those processes in the domain of tone which we have hitherto always felt, but never understood.

APPLICATION OF THE NATURAL LAWS LYING AT THE FOUNDATION OF MUSICAL SOUNDS TO THE CULTURE OF THE VOICE IN SINGING

The parts of the human voice that generate tones are the membranous vocal ligaments or chords, which are subject to the same natural laws as all sounding bodies; of this we may satisfy ourselves by observing the different registers of the voice by means of the laryngoscope. The lower, stronger tones of both series of the chest register show the ligaments in full vibration, and becoming more strongly stretched with every higher tone. In the second series the glottis appears, by the inaction of the arytenoid cartilages, to be shortened. In the falsetto register the vibrating body is diminished, as only the edges vibrate, while the same processes are repeated as in the chest register by the greater stretching of the ligaments and the shortening of the glottis.

The head register, likewise, shows the glottis partly closed, and the vibrating ligaments gradually stretched more and more.

The vocal ligaments are made to vibrate by the air coming from the lungs through the trachea, to which they present resistance.

These vibrations are communicated to the air in the mouth and outside, and are felt by the ear as sound.

As the strength of the tone depends upon the amplitude of the waves of sound, they, in their turn, depend upon the structure of the organ of singing, and of the parts of the mouth serving as a sounding-board or resonant apparatus, but, above all, upon the skilful management of the vibrating air. And although a fine timbre of the tones and due skill in increasing the amplitude of the vibrations may cause the voice to appear fuller and stronger, yet it is not in our power, when once the vocal organs have been fully developed, to make a strong voice out of a weak one.

Always to strike the true pitch fully and clearly requires persevering attention, as well from the teacher as from the pupil. And long practice is often required before the intonations become as pure as is indispensably necessary to good singing. For only upon the basis of a full, pure tone is a beautiful timbre (_Klangfarbe_) possible.

But the most important thing in the culture of the voice is the timbre of the tones, for _here it is in our power to form out of a sharp, hard and disagreeable voice, a voice sweet and pleasing_.

We have seen that the timbre is dependent on the forms of the vibrating waves, and the different degrees of strength and number of the over-tones arising from these forms. It has been further shown that the simple round form of the waves of vibration produces the softest, fullest timbre. By this form the fundamental tone is the strongest, and the over-tones are heard ascending to the third octave with decreasing degrees of strength. Such a tone is natural to certain voices. In most cases it must be more or less acquired.

A good tone in singing is formed,

1. By controlling and correctly dividing the air or breath as it is expired;

2. By a correct direction of the vibrating column of air; this is done by the right touch (_Tonansatz_);

And, 3. By a very distinct, quick and elastic _touch_.

THE CONTROL OF THE BREATH

By a too great pressure of the breath, the form of the waves of sound most favorable to a good tone is disturbed. One then hears the high over-tones sounding strongly up to the sixteenth, while the lower over-tones with the fundamental tone sound weak or not at all. Thus the tone takes a shrill, sharp and disagreeable sound when the form of the vibrating waves is more or less disturbed by too great a pressure of air. Too little breath deprives the tone only of its strength, but not of its agreeable sound.

_Thus every tone requires for its greatest possible perfection only a certain quant.i.ty of breath, which cannot be increased or diminished without injury to its strength in the one case, and its agreeable sound in the other._

In looking carefully through the histories of music, and studying the old Italian schools, we find that it was upon this point--the control and right division of the breathing--that the old masters in the summer of song laid the greatest stress, and this it was to which in teaching they gave the most time and labor. The rules which they followed in this respect, in order to obtain a fine tone, accord perfectly with the results of the latest scientific investigations. And it would be far better for the art of singing if in this respect we had followed the old Italians more faithfully, and not have forsaken so entirely the right way.

According to the old Italian method, which must not be confounded with the modern, the pupil was required at first to breathe just as he was wont to breathe in speaking, and care was taken, by frequent resting-points in the exercises, that the breath should always be renewed at the right time. Accordingly, if the crowding, or pressure, of his breathing was too great, he was required to learn to hold it back. Until the organs were sufficiently practised in the formation of a good tone, and the ear had become familiarized to its sound, pupils were allowed to sing _only_ _piano_. As soon as the pupil had a feeling for a pure tone awakened in him, and could of himself distinguish the finer variations of timbre, he was taught to fill his lungs more and more. But this was to be done, as much as possible, imperceptibly, noiselessly, slowly, and soon enough for him to be able properly to control the quiet breathing in the beginning of a song. Only the sides of the body were in so doing to expand, and breathing with raised chest was allowed only in exceptional cases, as where long pa.s.sages were to be sung with special pa.s.sion. For these places, where breath must be taken, there were certain rules which were strictly observed.

After we have learned the natural laws which are applicable in music, and which lie at the basis of a full, rich tone in singing, and that a tone is, strictly speaking, only vibrating air, upon the fine and skilful management of which its beauty and fulness depend, and have considered the careful way in which the old Italians taught the control of the breathing, we cannot but be struck with the rude and negligent manner of using the breath in our present mode of singing.

With some distinguished exceptions, it is now almost universally the practice to require the pupil, as the very first thing, to fill the lungs as full as possible, whereby the chest must be raised.

Then the tones must be sung in as strong and long-sustained a manner as possible, in order "to bring out the voice," as the phrase is. He is next told to begin the tones with a full chest _piano_, and slowly swell them to the highest _forte_, and then descend as slowly, in order to learn "to govern the voice." Thus the pupil is always required to sing as strongly as possible, without any special regard to the timbre of the tones, because the timbre is regarded as a peculiarity of different voices, admitting of no change. According to what has been shown in the preceding pages, the present way of using the breath, by which it is supposed that voices are rendered strong and full, only needlessly fatigues the organs, injures the beauty and weakens even the strength of the tones. In the same way we find, especially in the case of tenor voices, that the aim is by greater forcing of the breath to extend the registers beyond their limits. Another fault is often taught: the pupil is required to force with the breath to the due pitch those tones whose pitch is usually struck too low. No voices can ever endure such treatment, and, although the organs may be strong enough to remain sound while under instruction, yet the voice will not continue good, and cannot be of long duration.

We often hear, even in fresh and unsophisticated voices, a hoa.r.s.e breathing accompanying the tones, as in the case of worn-out voices. This breathing arises when the air, which is exhaled and which rushes into the cavity of the mouth, is not all in vibration, and it escapes along with the vibrating columns of air. It sometimes happens, also, that in the too great pressure of the exhaled air against the glottis, the arytenoid cartilages, near their bases, and sometimes the vocal chords leave a small opening through which the air escapes with a hoa.r.s.e noise. By keeping back the breath in singing these faults may be corrected. Long-continued singing piano in exercises is, moreover, beneficial in the forming of the voice.[12]

A simple expiration does not indeed suffice for the generation of a full sounding singing tone. There is required a certain force by which the air is sent through the narrow and stretched glottis. But so great an expense of force as people are usually at is not necessary.

The influence of the same stream of air increases in proportion as the breadth of the vibrating ligaments decreases. The tones of the falsetto and head registers, therefore, require far less breath than those of the chest register. The less the quant.i.ty of breath expended in these tones, and the easier and more quickly they are produced, the clearer and fuller do they sound.

The mechanism of the head tones especially is, as we have seen, so delicate that only a slight excess of breath calls forth the inharmonic over-tones which render the tone sharp and unmusical.

In wind instruments the tone can be forced upwards by a greater pressure of air; that is, by more powerful blowing, which appears to be practicable also in those instruments in whose peculiar timbre the highest inharmonic over-tones overpower the others.[13]

Together with the skill and unintermitted attention which this part of instruction in singing requires of the teacher, there are here yet other and peculiar difficulties which he has to meet. In opposition to the earlier and more correct view, it is no longer beauty of tone, but strength of tone, which is considered the chief excellence of a voice. Accustomed to seek the beauty of the voice in its strength, it is attempted, before the time of instruction begins, to sing as strongly as possible from a full chest with the greatest expulsion of breath. Thence it follows, in the superficial way in which the study of the art of singing is at present conducted, that nothing more is commonly required of a teacher than that he should be able to drill his pupil in some pieces of tolerably well conceived vocal music, which the latter must sing as soon as possible in company. A perfect culture of the voice is scarcely any longer expected of an artist. People with a very scanty musical education and voices very poorly trained are regarded as artists if they execute their parts with expression, and trick them out with those clap-traps which never fail to command the applause of the ordinary public.

A conscientious teacher has, therefore, universal opinion against him when he demands a longer time for the education of a voice, and requires of his pupils that they shall practice singing only piano as long as it is necessary.

THE CORRECT TOUCH OF THE VOICE (TONANSATZ)[14]

Having stated the first condition of a good timbre of the tones, we come now to the second--the right direction of the vibrating columns of air. A correct touch of the voice consists in causing the air, brought into vibration by the vocal ligaments, to rebound from immediately above the front upper teeth, where it must be concentrated as much as possible, rebounding thence to form in the mouth continuous vibrations, which are, at the same time, communicated to the external air. The quicker and the more easily these movements take place, and the farther forward in the mouth the vibrating column of air is reflected, the more beautiful, full and telling is the tone. If the air rebounds farther back in the mouth from any part of the roof of the mouth, then the high inharmonic over-tones are prominent, and there arises either one or the other of those hollow, disagreeable colorings of timbre which are known as throat and nasal tones.

That the voice must be brought forward in the mouth--that is, that the air expired in singing should have the above described direction--is now acknowledged as necessary and aimed at by the best teachers. But the reasons why the tones thus sound better are not known. The Germans and the English, in consequence of their accustomed modes of forming sounds in speaking, have, as we shall see hereafter, more rarely than the Italians, a correct disposition of the tones in singing. It is extremely difficult for many persons to accustom themselves to such a direction of the vibrating air-columns. But with the proper means the skilful teacher always gains his end. These means are to let the pupil practice those syllables which he is accustomed, _in his own language_, to form wholly in front of the mouth.

The old Italian masters considered the management or touch of the tone as one of the most important requirements in the perfect cultivation of the voice. Distinctly, lightly, swiftly and elastically must the column of tone, rightly directed, strike the forward part of the mouth, which at the same moment opens widely enough to communicate without delay the quick agitation to the air external to it.

_Only by a correct movement of this kind (Ansatz) are those forms of the vibrations obtained in which all the harmonic over-tones belonging to a perfect tone sound together._ The quicker, lighter and more distinct this movement of the tone is, the more telling it is, and it may be heard quite strongly, even when it is sung _piano_ with a full chorus and orchestra. Upon the occasion of the great Musical Festival in Boston (1869), it was a matter of universal wonder that with the powerful chorus of many thousands of voices, Mad. Parepa-Rosa's tones were heard so distinctly that even at a considerable distance the words were plainly understood. As great artists often find the true and only beautiful unconsciously, so Mad. Parepa-Rosa has a perfectly correct touch, whereby she sets the surrounding air vibrating more rapidly than it is possible for a chorus to do with so many unschooled voices. The sounding waves of the tones which this distinguished singer produced with the correct touch, naturally reached the ear sooner and were earlier felt and taken into the consciousness of the listener than those of the mighty chorus, and thus it was that the music of a single voice kept its significance even with the accompaniment of a mult.i.tude of voices.

The great influence of the touch upon the fulness, and especially upon the extent to which tones reach, is again best ill.u.s.trated by the movements of water. When we press on the surface of water slowly, though with the greatest force, and at the same time touch it in another place quickly and lightly, it is not only far more strongly moved by the quick, light touch, but the waves which are produced spread themselves out more rapidly, and run more swiftly over the surface, than those of the slower and more powerful pressure.

As the form of the vibrations necessary to a perfect tone in singing depends mainly upon a right management of tone, it is self-evident that here the greatest care should be taken in teaching vocal music. Here is one of the most difficult tasks for the teacher, and great perseverance and much practice are required of the pupil. But when once a right production of tone has become a habit, so that with every tone all the harmonic over-tones sound, and more breath is then allowed to stream forth immediately after the quick, light rebound of the vibrating column of tone, the vibrations enlarge without changing their form, and so only the strongest, fullest, most beautiful tone possible is obtained. But a touch can only be learned by imitation. We can no more describe the fine shades of tone than of color. And no art, least of all the art of singing, can be learned from books alone.