Commercial Geography Part 10

=Flax.=--The flax of commerce, the basis of linen cloth, is the bast or inner bark-fibre of an annual plant (_Linum usitalissimum_, _i.e._, most useful fibre), native probably to the Mediterranean basin. It ranks among the oldest known textiles. Bundles of unwrought fibre have been found in the lake dwellings of Switzerland, and linen cloth const.i.tuted a part of the sepulture wrappings of the ancient Egyptian dead.

Flax has a very wide range, thriving in the colder parts of Europe as well as in tropical Asia; it does equally well in the dry summers of California or the moist regions of the Mississippi Valley. The chief requisite is a firm soil that contains plenty of nutrition.

After the stalks have pa.s.sed maturity they are pulled up by hand; "rippled," or deprived of their seeds and leaves; "retted," or moistened in soft water until the bast separates; "broken" and "scutched" by a machine which gets rid of the woody fibres; and finally the loosened bast fibre is "hetcheled" or combed in order to separate the long, or "line," threads from the "tow" or refuse.

Russia produces more than one-half the world's crop, but the finest and choicest is that known as Courtrai fibre, which is grown in Belgium.

This is thought to be due to the quality of the water in the Lys River.

A considerable amount of flax grown elsewhere in Europe is sent to this part of Belgium to be retted. Ireland and Germany produce considerable amounts, and a small quant.i.ty is grown in the United States.

The prepared flax is used in the manufacture of linen cloth, and the latter is almost exclusively used for table-cloths, napkins, s.h.i.+rt-bosoms, collars, cuffs, and handkerchiefs. France is noted for the manufacture of linen lawns and cambrics, and Belfast, Ireland, for table-cloths and napkins. Nearly the whole linen product is consumed in the United States, Canada, and western Europe; indeed, linen is a mark of western civilization. Great Britain handles the greater part of the linen textiles.

=Hemp.=--The true hemp of commerce is the bast or inner bark of a plant, _Cannabis sativa_, belonging to the nettle order. It is an annual plant having a very wide range; it occurs in pretty nearly every country of North America, Europe, and Asia. In Europe the chief countries producing it for commercial uses are Russia, France, Italy, and Hungary; in the United States it is grown in California and the central Mississippi Valley. Russia produces the largest crop; Italy the finest quality of fibre, the best coming from the vicinity of Bologna.

The stalks grow three feet or more in height. When cultivated for the fibre they are pulled from the ground, stripped of their leaves and soaked until the fibre is free. They are then "retted," or beaten, and the fibre is removed. After preparation the fibre is used mainly for the manufacture of wrapping-twine, cordage, and a coa.r.s.e canvas. Great Britain is the chief purchaser and manufacturer.

=Manila Hemp.=--Manila hemp is the name given to a fibre obtained from the leaves of a plant, _Musa textilis_, belonging to the banana family. The best fibres are from six to nine feet in length, of light amber color, and very strong. The leaves, torn into narrow strips by hand, are afterward sc.r.a.ped by hand until the fibre is free of pulp. The long and coa.r.s.er fibres are made into rope; the shorter fibres are beaten and hetcheled in the same manner as flax, until fine enough to weave into mats, carpets, and fine cloth. The fibres that have served their usefulness as rope are pulped and manufactured into manila paper.

Practically all the manila fibre of commerce--which is not hemp at all--is grown in the Philippine Islands, and since peace has prevailed, the growth and production is increasing. The crude fibre is prepared by hand, by Filipino or by Chinese labor. The manufacture of cordage and paper is done mainly in the United States and Great Britain. Fine hand-made textiles are made by a few Filipino natives, but most of the goods of this character are manufactured in France. Very fine fibre is sometimes used as an adulterant of silk. Great Britain and the United States are the chief purchasers.

=Sisal Hemp.=--Sisal hemp, or henequen, is a stout, stringy fibre obtained from the thick leaves of several species of agave, to which the maguey and century-plant belong. The cultivated species, from which most of the commercial product is obtained, is the _Agave sisalina_, which much resembles the ordinary century-plant.

The essential feature in the economic production of sisal hemp is machinery for separating the fibre from the pulp of the leaf. The fibre is whiter, cleaner, and lighter than jute; moreover, in strength it ranks next to the best quality of manila hemp. It is used mainly in the manufacture of grain-sacks, and the twine used on self-binding harvesters. Nearly all the fibre of commerce is grown in the Mexican state of Yucatan and consumed in the United States. The cultivation of this material has made Yucatan one of the most prosperous states of Mexico.

=Jute.=--Jute is a fibre obtained from the inner bark of a tropical plant, _Corchorus olitorius_, belonging to the same order as the linden-tree.

The plant is an annual, growing in various moist, tropical countries, but is extensively cultivated in India and parts of China for commercial purposes. The fibre is prepared for manufacture in much the same manner as hemp and flax. In India it is used mainly for the manufacture of a coa.r.s.e textile known as gunny cloth, used as bale-wrappers, and sacks for coffee and rice. On the Pacific coast states it is used for wheat-sacks. Calcutta is the chief centre of manufacture, but jute-sacks are extensively manufactured by the Chinese in California and China.

=Ramie.=--This fibre, also known as China gra.s.s, is the best of two or more species of nettles, prepared in the same manner as hemp fibre. It is finer and stronger than jute, and will take dye-stuffs in a superior manner. With the introduction of machinery for separating and handling the fibre, the cultivation of the ramie-plant has spread from China to India, j.a.pan, and the United States. Fine textiles are now manufactured from it, the most important being carpets, mattings, and American "Smyrna" rugs. The last are generally sold as jute-rugs, and they are nearly as durable as woollen floor-covers.

=Other Economic Fibres.=--The fibre of _cocoanut husk_ is largely employed in the manufacture of coa.r.s.e matting. A part of this is obtained from tropical America, but it is a regular export of British India, where it is known as _coir_.

The mid-rib of the _screw pine_ growing in the forests of tropical America furnishes the material of which "Panama" hats are made. The hats are made in various parts of Ecuador, Venezuela, and Colombia, and were formerly marketed in Panama. Hats made of a score of gra.s.ses and fibres are also sold as Panamas.

A plant (_Phormium tenax_) having leaves somewhat like those of the iris or common flag furnishes the material of which New Zealand flax is prepared. It is used mainly in the manufacture of cordage.

_Plaiting straw_, used in the manufacture of hats and bonnets, is grown extensively in northern Italy and in Belgium. For this product spring wheat is very thickly sown in a soil rich in lime. The thick sowing produces a long, slender stalk; the lime gives it whiteness and strength. Plaiting straw is also exported from China and j.a.pan. British merchants handle most of the product.

_Cuba bast_, a fibre readily bleached to whiteness, is exported to the various establishments in which women's hats are made.

_Esparto gra.s.s_, also called _alfa_, grows in Spain and the northern part of Africa. It was formerly much used in the manufacture of the cheaper grades of paper, but it has been largely supplanted by wood-pulp for this purpose. The decline of the esparto gra.s.s industry led to no little unrest among some of the native tribes of northern Africa.

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

What fibres were used in cloth-making in Europe before cotton was employed?

What textiles are of necessity made of cotton?

What is a spinning jenny?--a Jacquard loom?

What are the specific differences between cotswold and merino wool?

Why were most of the cloth-making mills of the United States built at first in the New England States?

How is the silk-making industry encouraged in the United States?

What are the chief linen manufacturing countries?

FOR STUDY AND REFERENCE

Obtain specimens of the cotton seed, boll, raw cotton (sea island, Peruvian, and ordinary), cotton thread, calico, gingham, domestic, canvas, and some of the fancy textiles such as organdie, lawn, etc.

Obtain specimens of the coc.o.o.ns of the silk-worm, raw silk gros-grain cloth, pongee, and tussar silk cloth.

Obtain also specimens of merino cloth, cashmere, cheviot, and other similar goods; compare them and note the difference.

Examine the fibres of cotton, silk, and wool under a microscope and note the difference.

[Ill.u.s.tration: BRANCH OF COFFEE TREE, WEST BRAZIL]

[Ill.u.s.tration: COFFEE PLANTATION NEAR JOLO, PHILIPPINE ISLANDS]

[Ill.u.s.tration: COFFEE DRYING FIELD, BRAZIL]

CHAPTER X

PLANT PRODUCTS OF ECONOMIC USE--BEVERAGES AND MEDICINAL SUBSTANCES

It may be a.s.sumed that practically all beverages derived from plants owe their popularity to the stimulant effects they produce. In coffee, tea, cocoa, and mate, the stimulant principle is identical with _cafein_, the active principle of coffee; in liquors it is a powerful narcotic _alcohol_; non-potable substances, tobacco, opium, etc., owe their popularity also to narcotic poisons.

=Coffee.=--The coffee "beans" of commerce are the seeds of a tree (_Coffea arabica_) probably native to Abyssinia, but now cultivated in various parts of the world. It was introduced into Aden from Africa late in the fifteenth century, and from there its use spread to other cities. Rather singularly its popularity resulted from the strong efforts made to forbid its use.

It was regarded as a stimulant and therefore it was forbidden to followers of Islam.[34] But its power to prevent drowsiness and sleep during the intolerably long religious exercises was a winning feature, and so its use became general in spite of the fulminations against it.

Coffee culture was confined to Arabia until the close of the seventeenth century; it was then introduced into the Dutch East Indies, and for many years the island of Java became the main supply of the world. At the present time, Java is second only to Brazil in coffee production. In the Old World it is now also cultivated along the Guinea coast of Africa, in Madagascar, India, and Ceylon. In the New World the chief areas are Brazil, Venezuela, the Central American States, and the West Indies.

[Ill.u.s.tration: COFFEE PRODUCING REGIONS]

The coffee-tree may be cultivated in almost any soil that is fertile; it thrives best, however, in red soil. Old, decomposed red lavas produce the choicest beans. Coffee grows in any moist climate in which the temperature does not range higher than 80 F. nor lower than 55 F. An occasional frost injures but does not necessarily kill the trees, which grow better in the shade than in the sunlight. For convenience in gathering the crop, the trees are pruned until they are not higher than bushes.

The fruit of the coffee-tree is a deep-red berry not quite so large as a cherry. A juicy pulp encloses a double membrane, or endocarp, and within the latter are the seeds which const.i.tute the coffee of commerce.

Normally there are two seeds, but in some varieties there is a tendency for one seed to mature, leaving the other undeveloped; this is the "peaberry" coffee of commerce. The so-called Mocha coffee is a peaberry.

In their preparation the berries are picked when ripe and deprived of their pulp. After pulping they are cured in the sun for about a week and then hulled, or divested of the endocarp, a process requiring expensive machinery. The coffee is then cleaned, and sacked.