Pinnock's improved edition of Dr. Goldsmith's History of Rome Part 8

5. To supply the people with gladiators, schools were, established in various parts of Italy, each under the controul of a _lanis'ta_, or fencing-master, who instructed them in martial exercises. The victims were either prisoners of war, or refractory slaves, sold by their masters; but in the degenerate ages of the empire, freemen, and even senators, ventured their lives on the stage along with the regular gladiators. Under the mild and merciful influence of Christianity these combats were abolished, and human blood was no longer shed to gratify a cruel and sanguinary populace.

6. So numerous were the gladiators, that Spar'tacus, one of their number, having escaped from a school, raised an army of his fellow-sufferers, amounting to seventy thousand men; he was finally subdued by Cras'sus, the colleague of Pompey. Ju'lius Caesar, during his aediles.h.i.+p, exhibited at one time three hundred and twenty pairs of gladiators; but even this was surpa.s.sed by the emperor Trajan, who displayed no less than one thousand.

7. The gladiators were named from their peculiar arms; the most common were the _retiarius_, who endeavoured to hamper his antagonist with a net; and his opponent the _secutor_.

8. When a gladiator was wounded, or in any way disabled, he fled to the extremity of the stage, and implored the pity of the spectators; if he had shown good sport, they took him under their protection by pressing down their thumbs; but if he had been found deficient in courage or activity, they held the thumb back, and he was instantly murdered by his adversary.

9. The Roman theatre was formed after the model of the Greeks, but never attained equal eminence. The populace always paid more regard to the dresses of the actors, and the richness of the decoration, than to ingenious structure of plot, or elegance of language. Scenic representations do not appear to have been very popular at Rome, certainly never so much as the sports of the circus. Besides comedies and tragedies, the Romans had a species of drama peculiar to their country, called the Atellane farces, which were, in general, low pieces of gross indecency and vulgar buffoonery, but sometimes contained spirited satires on the character and conduct of public men.

10. We should be greatly mistaken if we supposed that the theatres in ancient Rome at all resembled those of modern times; they were stupendous edifices, some of which could accommodate thirty thousand spectators, and an army could perform its evolutions on the stage. To remedy the defects of distance, the tragic actors wore a buskin with very thick soles, to raise them above their natural size, and covered their faces with a mask so contrived as to render the voice more clear and full.[1] Instead of the buskin, comic actors wore a sort of slipper called a sock.

11. The periodical festivals of the Romans were celebrated with theatrical entertainments and sports in the circus at the public expense. The most remarkable of these festivals was the secular, which occurred only at periods of one hundred and ten years. The others occurred annually, and were named from the G.o.ds to whose honour they were dedicated.

12. The Romans were a more grave and domestic people than the lively Greeks; their favourite dress, the toga or gown, was more formal and stately than the Grecian short cloak; their demeanour was more stern, and their manners more imposing. The great object of the old Roman was, to maintain his dignity under all circ.u.mstances, and to show that he could controul the emotions to which ordinary men too readily yield. Excessive joy or grief, unqualified admiration, or intense surprise, were deemed disgraceful; and even at a funeral, the duty of lamenting the deceased was entrusted to hired mourners. Temperance at meals was a leading feature in the character of the Romans during the early ages of the republic; but after the conquest of Asia, their luxuries were more extravagant than those of any nation recorded in history. But there was more extravagance than refinement in the Roman luxury; and though immense sums were lavished on entertainments, they were dest.i.tute of that taste and elegance more delightful than the most costly delicacies.

13. The Roman ladies, enjoyed more freedom than those in any other, ancient nation. They visited all places of public amus.e.m.e.nt uncontrolled, and mingled in general society. The power of the husband, however, was absolute, and he could divorce his wife at pleasure without a.s.signing any cause. In the early ages of the republic this privilege was rarely exercised, and the Roman ladies were strictly virtuous; but at a later period divorces were multiplied, and the most shocking depravity was the consequence.

_Questions for Examination_.

1. What were the national amus.e.m.e.nts of the Romans?

2. What were the naumachiae?

3. Whence arose the custom of gladiatorial combats?

4. Why were these exhibitions of frequent occurrence?

5. How was the supply of gladiators kept up?

6. From what circ.u.mstances do we learn the great numbers of the gladiators?

7. What names were given to the gladiators?

8. How were these combats terminated?

9. What pieces were exhibited on the Roman stage?

10. How did the dramatic entertainments in Rome differ from those of modern times?

11. Which were the most remarkable Roman festivals?

12. What was the general character of the Roman people?

13. How were women treated in Rome?

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Hence the mask was called _persona_, from _personare_, to sound through. From _persona_ the English word _person_ is derived, which properly signifies not so much an individual, as the aspect of that individual in relation to civil society.

CHAPTER X.

GEOGRAPHY OF THE EMPIRE AT THE TIME OF ITS GREATEST EXTENT.

The Roman eagle seized The double prey, and proudly perch'd on high And here a thousand years he plumed his wing Till from his lofty eyry, tempest-tost, And impotent through age, headlong he plunged, While nations shuddered as they saw him fall.--_Anon._

1. The ordinary boundaries of the Roman empire, over which, however, it sometimes pa.s.sed, were, in Europe, the two great rivers of the Rhine and Danube; in Asia, the Euphrates and the Syrian deserts; in Africa, the tracts of arid sand which fence the interior of that continent. It thus contained those fertile and rich countries which surround the Mediterranean sea, and const.i.tute the fairest portion of the earth.

2. Beginning at the west of Europe,[1] we find, first, Hispa'nia, _Spain_. Its boundaries are, on the east, the chain of the Pyrenees; on every other side, the sea. It was divided into three provinces: 1.

Lusita'nia, _Portugal_, bounded on the north by the Du'rius, _Douro_, and on the south by the Anas; _Guadiana_: 2. Bo'etica, bounded on the north and west by the A'nas, and on the east by the mountains of Orospe'da, _Sierra Moreno_: 3. Tarracone'nsis, which includes the remainder of the Spanish peninsula. 3. Spain was annexed to the Roman empire after the conclusion of the second _Punic_ war; Lusitania, after a desperate resistance, was added at a later period.

4. Transalpine Gaul was the name given to the entire country between the Pyrenees and the Rhine; it consequently included France, Switzerland, and Belgium.

5. Gaul was divided in four provinces: 1. Narbonen'sis or Bracca'ta, bounded on the west by the Pyrenees; on the north by the Cevennian mountains, and on the east by the Va'rus, _Var_: 2. Lugdunen'sis or Cel'tica, bounded on the south and west by the Li'ger, _Loire_; on the north by the Sequa'na, _Seine_, and on the east by the A'rar, _Saone_: 3. Aquita'nica, bounded by the Pyrenees on the south, and the Li'ger on the north and east: 4. Bel'gica, bounded on the north and east by the Rhe'nus, _Rhine;_ on the west by the Arar, and on the south by the Rhoda'nus, _Rhone_, as far as the city Lugdu'num, _Lyons_. Helve'tia, the modern Switzerland, was included in Belgic Gaul. This extensive country was not totally subdued before the time of Julius Caesar.

6. Italy has been already mentioned in the first chapter; we shall therefore pa.s.s it over and come to the islands in the Mediterranean.

Sici'lia or Trinac'ria, _Sicily_, was the first province that the Romans gained beyond the confines of Italy. The cities on its coast were founded by Phoenician and Grecian colonies, but the native inhabitants retained possession of the interior; one tribe, named the Sic'uli, are said to have migrated from Italy, and to have given their name to the island. The Greeks and Carthaginians long contended for supremacy in this island, but it was wrested from both by the Romans towards the close of the second _Punic_ war. Nearly at the same time, the islands of Corsica and Sardinia were annexed to the empire.

7. Britan'nia, divided into Britan'nia Roma'na, which contained England and the south of Scotland; and Britannia Bar'bara or Caledo'nia, the northern part of Scotland, into which the Romans never penetrated. Britain was first invaded by Julius Caesar, but was not wholly subdued before the time of Nero. As for Hiber'nia or Ier'ne, _Ireland_, it was visited by Roman merchants, but never by Roman legions.

8. The countries south of the Danube, were subdued and divided into provinces during the reign of Augustus. The number of these provinces was seven: 1. Vindeli'cia, bounded on the north by the Danube; on the east by the ae'nus, _Inn_; on the west by Helve'tia, and on the south by Rhae'tia: 2. Rhaetia, lying between Helve'tia, Vindeli'cia, and the eastern chain of the Alps: 3. Novi'c.u.m, bounded on the north by the Danube, on the west by the ae'nus, _Inn_, on the east by mount Ce'tius _Kahlenberg_, and on the south by the Julian Alps and the Sa'vus, _Save_: 4. Panno'nia Superior, having as boundaries, the Danube on the north and east; the Ar'rabo, _Raab_, on the south; and the Cetian mountains on the west: 5. Panno'nia Inferior, having the Ar'rabo on the north; the Ar'rabo on the east; and the Sa'vus on the south: 6.

Moe'sia Superior, bounded on the north by the Danube, on the south by Mount Scar'dus. _Tihar-dag_; on the west by the Pan'nonia, and on the east by the river Ce'brus, _Isker_: 7. Moe'sia Inferior, having the Danube on the north; the Ce'brus on the west; the chain of mount Hae'mus on the south, and the Pon'tus Eux'imus, _Black Sea_, on the east.

9. Illyric.u.m included the districts along the eastern coast of the Adriatic, from Rhae'tia to the river Dri'nus, _Drino Brianco_, in the south, and the Sa'vus, _Save_, on the east. It was subdued by the Romans about the time of the Macedonian war.

10. Macedon and Greece were subdued after the conquest of Carthage; for the particulars of their geography, the student is referred to the introduction prefixed to the last edition of the Grecian History.

Thrace was governed by its own kings, who were tributary to the Romans until the reign of the emperor Claudian, when it was made a province.

11. Da'cia was first subdued by the emperor Trajan, and was the only province north of the Danube; its boundaries were, the Carpathian mountains on the north, the Tibis'eus, _Theiss_, on the west, the Hiera'sus, _Pruth_, on the east, and the Danube on the south.

12. The princ.i.p.al Asiatic provinces were, Asia Minor, Syria, and Phoeni'cia. Beyond the Euphra'tes, Arme'nia and Mesopota'mia were reduced to provinces by Trajan, but abandoned by his successor Adrian.

13. The African provinces were, Egypt, Cyrena'ica, Namidia, and Maurita'nia.

14. The princ.i.p.al states on the borders of the empire were, Germa'nia and Sarma'tia in Europe, Arme'nia and Par'thia in Asia, and aethio'pia in Africa.

15. Eastern Asia, or India, was only known to the Romans by a commercial intercourse, which was opened with that country soon after the conquest of Egypt.

It was divided into India on this side the Ganges, and India beyond the Ganges, which included Se'rica, a country of which the Romans possessed but little knowledge. India at the western side of the Ganges contained, 1. The territory between the In'dus and Gan'ges: 2.

The western coast, now called Malabar, which was the part best known, and, 3. The island of Taproba'ne, _Ceylon_.

16. The commerce between Europe and southern Asia became important in the reign of Alexan'der the Great; the greater part of the towns founded by that mighty conqueror were intended to facilitate this lucrative trade.[2] After his death, the Ptol'emys of Egypt became the patrons of Indian traffic, which was unwisely neglected by the kings of Syria. When Egypt was conquered by the Romans, the commerce with India was not interrupted, and the princ.i.p.al mart for Indian commerce under the Roman emperors, was always Alexandria. The jealousy of the Parthians excluded strangers from their territories, and put an end to the trade that was carried on between northern India, the sh.o.r.es of the Caspian sea, and thence to the aegean. In consequence of this interruption, Palmy'ra and Alexandri'a became the great depots of eastern commerce, and to this circ.u.mstance they owed their enormous wealth and magnificence.