Outlines of Lessons in Botany Part 5

The carrot is a fleshy root, as we have already seen. The onion consists of the fleshy bases of last year's leaves, sheathed by the dried remains of the leaves of former years, from which all nourishment has been drawn.

The parallel veining of the leaves is distinctly marked. The stem is a plate at the base, to which these fleshy scales are attached. In the centre, or in the axils of the scales, the newly-forming bulbs can be seen, in onions that are sprouting. If possible, compare other bulbs, as those of Tulip, Hyacinth, or Snowdrop, and the bulb of a Crocus, in which the fleshy part consists of the thickened base of the stem, and the leaves are merely dry scales. This is called a _corm_.

The potato is a thickened stem. It shows itself to be a stem, because it bears organs. The leaves are reduced to little scales (eyelids), in the axils of which come the buds (eyes). The following delightful experiment has been recommended to me.

In a growing potato plant, direct upwards one of the low shoots and surround it with a little cylinder of stiff carpet paper, stuffed with sphagnum and loam. Cut away the other tuber-disposed shoots as they appear. The enclosed shoot develops into a tuber which stands more or less vertical, and the scales become pretty little leaves. Removing the paper, the tuber and leaves become green, and the latter enlarge a little. A better ill.u.s.tration of the way in which organs adapt themselves to their conditions, and of the meaning of morphology, could hardly be found.

_Gray's First Lessons_. Sect. v, 65-88. _How Plants Grow_. Chap. I, 83-90.

IV.

BUDS AND BRANCHES.

1. There is an astonis.h.i.+ng amount to be learned from naked branches, and, if pursued in the right way, the study will be found exceedingly interesting. Professor Beal, in his pamphlet on the New Botany,[1] says:--

"Before the first lesson, each pupil is furnished or told where to procure some specimen for study. If it is winter, and flowers or growing plants cannot be had, give each a branch of a tree or shrub; this branch may be two feet long. The examination of these is made during the usual time for preparing lessons, and not while the cla.s.s is before the teacher. For the first recitation each is to tell what he has discovered. The specimens are not in sight during the recitation. In learning the lesson, books are not used; for, if they are used, no books will contain a quarter of what the pupil may see for himself. If there is time, each member of the cla.s.s is allowed a chance to mention anything not named by any of the rest. The teacher may suggest a few other points for study. The pupils are not told what they can see for themselves. An effort is made to keep them working after something which they have not yet discovered. If two members disagree on any point, on the next day, after further study, they are requested to bring in all the proofs they can to sustain their different conclusions. For a second lesson, the students review the first lesson, and report on a branch of a tree of another species which they have studied as before. Now they notice any point of difference or of similarity. In like manner new branches are studied and new comparisons made. For this purpose, naked branches of our species of elms, maples, ashes, oaks, ba.s.swood, beech, poplars, willows, walnut, b.u.t.ternut, hawthorns, cherries, and in fact any of our native or exotic trees or shrubs are suitable. A comparison of the branches of any of the evergreens is interesting and profitable. Discoveries, very unexpected, are almost sure to reward a patient study of these objects. The teacher must not think time is wasted. No real progress can be made, till the pupils begin to learn to see; and to learn to see they must keep trying to form the habit from the very first; and to form the habit they should make the study of specimens the main feature in the course of training."

[Footnote 1: The New Botany. By W.J. Beal. Philadelphia, C.H. Marot, 814 Chestnut St., 1882. Page 5.]

HORSECHESTNUT (_aesculus Hippocastanum_).

We will begin with the study of a branch of Horsechestnut.[1] The pupils should examine and describe their specimens before discussing them in the cla.s.s-room. They will need some directions and hints, however, to enable them to work to any advantage. Tell them to open both large and small buds. It is not advisable to study the Horsechestnut bud by cutting sections, as the wool is so dense that the arrangement cannot be seen in this way. The scales should be removed with a knife, one by one, and the number, texture, etc., noted. The leaves and flower-cl.u.s.ter will remain uncovered and will be easy to examine. The gum may be first removed by pressing the bud in a bit of paper. The scholars should study carefully the markings on the stem, in order to explain, if possible, what has caused them. The best way to make clear the meaning of the scars is to show them the relation of the bud to the branch. They must define a bud.

Ask them what the bud would have become the next season, if it had been allowed to develop. It would have been a branch, or a part of one. A bud, then, is an undeveloped branch. They can always work out this definition for themselves. Conversely, a branch is a developed bud, or series of buds, and every mark on the branch must correspond to something in the bud. Let them examine the specimens with this idea clearly before their minds. The lesson to prepare should be to write out all they can observe and to make careful drawings of their specimens. Ask them to find a way, if possible, to tell the age of the branch.

[Footnote 1: The pupils should cut their names on their branches and keep them. They will need them constantly for comparison and reference.]

At the recitation, the papers can be read and the points mentioned thoroughly discussed. This will take two lesson-hours, probably, and the drawing may be left, if desired, as the exercise to prepare for the second recitation.

[1]The buds of Horsechestnut contain the plan of the whole growth of the next season. They are scaly and covered, especially towards the apex, with a sticky varnish. The scales are opposite, like the leaves. The outer pairs are wholly brown and leathery, the succeeding ones tipped with brown, wherever exposed, so that the whole bud is covered with a thick coat. The inner scales are green and delicate, and somewhat woolly, especially along the lapping edges. There are about seven pairs of scales. The larger terminal buds have a flower-cl.u.s.ter in the centre, and generally two pairs of leaves; the small buds contain leaves alone, two or three pairs of them. The leaves are densely covered with white wool, to protect them from the sudden changes of winter. The use of the gum is to ward off moisture. The flower-cl.u.s.ter is woolly also.

[Footnote 1: All descriptions are made from specimens examined by me.

Other specimens may differ in some points. Plants vary in different situations and localities.]

The scars on the stem are of three kinds, leaf, bud-scale, and flower-cl.u.s.ter scars. The pupils should notice that the buds are always just above the large triangular scars. If they are still in doubt as to the cause of these marks, show them some house-plant with well-developed buds in the axils of the leaves, and ask them to compare the position of these buds with their branches. The buds that spring from the inner angle of the leaf with the stem are _axillary_ buds; those that crown the stems are _terminal_. Since a bud is an undeveloped branch, terminal buds carry, on the axis which they crown, axillary buds give rise to side-shoots. The leaf-scars show the leaf-arrangement and the number of leaves each year.

The leaves are opposite and each pair stands over the intervals of the pair below. The same is observed to be true of the scales and leaves of the bud.[1] All these points should be brought out by the actual observation of the specimens by the pupils, with only such hints from the teacher as may be needed to direct their attention aright. The dots on the leaf-scar are the ends of woody bundles (fibro-vascular bundles) which, in autumn, separated from the leaf. By counting these we can tell how many leaflets there were in the leaf, three, five, seven, nine, or occasionally six or eight.

[Footnote 1: Bud-scales are modified leaves and their arrangement is therefore the same as the leaves. This is not mentioned in the study of the Horsechestnut bud, because it cannot be proved to the pupils, but the transition is explained in connection with Lilac, where it may be clearly seen. The scales of the bud of Horsechestnut are considered to be h.o.m.ologous with petioles, by a.n.a.logy with other members of the same family. In the Sweet Buckeye a series can be made, exhibiting the gradual change from a scale to a compound leaf. See the Botanical Text-Book, Part I, Structural Botany. By Asa Gray. Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor and Co., New York, 1879. Plate 233, p. 116.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 13.--Horsechestnut. I. Branch in winter state: _a_, leaf-scars; _b_, bud-scars; _c_, flower-scars. 2. An expanding leaf-bud.

3. Same, more advanced.]

_The Bud Scale-Scars_. These are rings left by the scales of the bud and may be seen in many branches. They are well seen in Horsechestnut. If the pupils have failed to observe that these rings show the position of former buds and mark the growth of successive years, this point must be brought out by skilful questioning. There is a difference in the color of the more recent shoots, and a pupil, when asked how much of his branch grew the preceding season, will be able to answer by observing the change in color.

Make him see that this change corresponds with the rings, and he will understand how to tell every year's growth. Then ask what would make the rings in a branch produced from one of his buds, and he can hardly fail to see that the scales would make them. When the scholars understand that the rings mark the year's growth, they can count them and ascertain the age of each branch. The same should be done with each side-shoot. Usually the numbers will be found to agree; that is, all the buds will have the same number of rings between them and the cut end of the branch, but occasionally a bud will remain latent for one or several seasons and then begin its growth, in which case the numbers will not agree; the difference will be the number of years it remained latent. There are always many buds that are not developed. "The undeveloped buds do not necessarily perish, but are ready to be called into action in case the others are checked.

When the stronger buds are destroyed, some that would else remain dormant develop in their stead, incited by the abundance of nourishment which the former would have monopolized. In this manner our trees are soon reclothed with verdure, after their tender foliage and branches have been killed by a late vernal frost, or consumed by insects. And buds which have remained latent for several years occasionally shoot forth into branches from the sides of old stems, especially in certain trees."[1]

[Footnote 1: Structural Botany, p. 48.]

The pupils can measure the distance between each set of rings on the main stem, to see on what years it grew best.

_The Flower-Cl.u.s.ter Scars_. These are the round, somewhat concave, scars, found terminating the stem where forking occurs, or seemingly in the axils of branches, on account of one of the forking branches growing more rapidly and stoutly than the other and thus taking the place of the main stem, so that this is apparently continued without interruption. If the pupils have not understood the cause of the flower-cl.u.s.ter scars, show them their position in shoots where they are plainly on the summit of the stem, and tell them to compare this with the arrangement of a large bud. The flower-cl.u.s.ter terminates the axis in the bud, and this scar terminates a branch. When the terminal bud is thus prevented from continuing its growth, the nearest axillary buds are developed.[1] One shoot usually gets the start, and becomes so much stronger that it throws the other to one side. The tendency of the Horsechestnut to have its growth carried on by the terminal buds is so strong that I almost feel inclined to say that vigorous branches are never formed from axillary buds, in old trees, except where the terminal bud has been prevented from continuing the branch. This tendency gives to the tree its characteristic size of trunk and branches, and lack of delicate spray. On looking closely at the branches also, they will be seen to be quite irregular, wherever there has been a flower-cl.u.s.ter swerving to one side or the other.

[Footnote 1: The first winter that I examined Horsechestnut buds I found, in many cases, that the axillary shoots had from a quarter of an inch to an inch of wood before the first set of rings. I could not imagine what had formed this wood, and it remained a complete puzzle to me until the following spring, when I found in the expanding shoots, that, wherever a flower-cl.u.s.ter was present, there were one or two pairs of leaflets already well developed in the axils, and that the next season's buds were forming between them, while the internodes of these leaflets were making quite a rapid growth. Subsequently, I found the leaflets also in the buds themselves. I found these leaflets developed on the tree only in the shoots containing flower-cl.u.s.ters, where they would be needed for the future growth of the branches. I suppose the reason must be that the flower-cl.u.s.ter does not use all the nourishment provided and that therefore the axillary buds are able to develop. It would be interesting to know what determines the stronger growth of the one which eventually becomes the leader.]

There is one thing more the pupils may have noticed. The small round dots all over the young stem, which become long rifts in the older parts, are breaks in the epidermis, or skin of the stem, through which the inner layers of bark protrude. They are called lenticels. They provide a pa.s.sage for gases in and out of the stem. In some trees, as the Birch, they are very noticeable.

After discussing the subject thoroughly in the cla.s.s-room, the pupils should rewrite their papers, and finally answer the following questions, as a species of review. I have thus spent three recitations on the Horsechestnut. The work is all so new, and, if properly presented, so interesting, that a good deal of time is required to exhaust its possibilities of instruction. If the teacher finds his scholars wearying, however, he can leave as many of the details as he pleases to be treated in connection with other branches.

QUESTIONS ON THE HORSECHESTNUT.

How many scales are there in the buds you have examined?

How are they arranged?

How many leaves are there in the buds?

How are they arranged?

Where does the flower-cl.u.s.ter come in the bud?

Do all the buds contain flower-cl.u.s.ters?

What is the use of the wool and the gum?

Where do the buds come on the stem?

Which are the strongest?

How are the leaves arranged on the stem?

Do the pairs stand directly over each other?

What are the dots on the leaf-scars?

How old is your branch?

How old is each twig?

Which years were the best for growth?

Where were the former flower-cl.u.s.ters?

What happens when a branch is stopped in its growth by flowering?

What effect does this have on the appearance of the tree?