Church History Part 2

His mantle, as a vigorous polemist, had fallen upon his youngest son. Very important too was the influence of his much older sister, Angelica Arnauld, Abbess of the Cistercian cloister of Port Royal des Champs, six miles from Paris, which under her became the centre of religious life and effort for all France. Around her gathered some of the n.o.blest, most pious, and talented men of the time: the poet Racine, the mathematician and apologist Pascal, the Bible translator De Sacy, the church historian Tillemont, all ardent admirers of Augustine and determined opponents of the lax morality of the Jesuits. Arnauld's book, "_De la frequente Communion_," was approved by the Sorbonne, the Parliament, and the most distinguished of the French clergy; but in A.D. 1653 Innocent X. condemned five Jansenist propositions in it as heretical. The Augustinians now maintained that these doctrines were not taught in the sense attributed to them by the pope. Arnauld distinguished the _question du fait_ from the _question du droit_, maintaining that the latter only were subject to the judgment of the Holy See. The Sorbonne, now greatly changed in composition and character, expelled him on account of this position from its corporation in A.D. 1656. About this time, at Arnauld's instigation, Pascal, the profound and brilliant author of "_Pensees sur la Religion_,"

began, under the name of Louis de Montalte to publish his famous "Provincial Letters," which in an admirable style exposed and lashed with deep earnestness and biting wit the base moral principles of Jesuit casuistry. The truly annihilating effect of these letters upon the reputation of the powerful order could not be checked by their being burnt by order of Parliament by the hangman at Aix in A.D. 1657, and at Paris in A.D. 1660. But meanwhile the specifically Jansenist movement entered upon a new phase of its development. Alexander VII. had issued in A.D. 1656 a bull which denounced the application of the distinction _du fait_ and _du droit_ to the papal decrees as derogatory to the holy see, and affirmed that Jansen taught the five propositions in the sense they had been condemned. In order to enforce the sentence, Annal, the Jesuit father confessor of Louis XIV., obtained in 1661 a royal decree requiring all French clergy, monks, nuns, and teachers to sign a formula unconditionally accepting this bull. Those who refused were banished, and fled mostly to the Netherlands. The sorely oppressed nuns of Port Royal at last reluctantly agreed to sign it; but they were still persecuted, and in A.D.

1664 the new archbishop, Perefixe, inaugurated a more severe persecution, placed this cloister under the interdict, and removed some of the nuns to other convents. In A.D. 1669, Alexander's successor, Clement IX., secured the submission of Arnauld, De Sacy, Nicole, and many of the nuns by a policy of mild connivance. But the hatred of the Jesuits was still directed against their cloister. In A.D. 1705 Clement XI. again demanded full and unconditioned acceptance of the decree of Alexander VII., and when the nuns refused, the pope, in A.D. 1708, declared this convent an irredeemable nest of heresy, and ordered its suppression, which was carried out in A.D. 1709. In A.D. 1710 cloister and church were levelled to the ground, and the very corpses taken out of their graves.(20)-Continuation, -- 165, 7.

-- 158. Science and Art in the Catholic Church.

Catholic theology flourished during the seventeenth century as it had never done since the twelfth and thirteenth. Especially in the liberal Gallican church there was a vigorous scientific life. The Parisian Sorbonne and the orders of the Jesuits, St. Maur, and the Oratorians, excelled in theological, particularly in patristic and historical, learning, and the contemporary brilliancy of Reformed theology in France afforded a powerful stimulus. But the best days of art, especially Italian painting, were now past. Sacred music was diligently cultivated, though in a secularized style, and many gifted hymn-writers made their appearance in Spain and Germany.

1. _Theological Science (-- 149, 14)._-The parliamentary advocate, Mich. le Jay, published at his own expense the Parisian Polyglott in ten folio vols., A.D. 1629-1645, which, besides complete Syriac and Arabic translations, included also the Samaritan. The chief contributor was the Oratorian _Morinus_, who edited the LXX. and the Samaritan texts, which he regarded as incomparably superior to the Masoretic text corrupted by the Jews. The Jansenists produced a French translation of the Bible with practical notes, condemned by the pope, but much read by the people. It was mainly the work of the brothers _De Sacy_. The New Testament was issued in A.D. 1667 and the Old Testament somewhat later, called the Bible of Mons from the fict.i.tious name of the place of publication. _Richard Simon_, the Oratorian, who died in A.D. 1712, treated Scripture with a boldness of criticism never before heard of within the church. While opposed by many on the Catholic side, the curia favoured his work as undermining the Protestant doctrine of Scripture. _Cornelius a Lapide_, who died A.D. 1637, expounded Scripture according to the fourfold sense.-In systematic theology the old scholastic method still held sway.

Moral theology was wrought out in the form of casuistry with unexampled lasciviousness, especially by the Jesuits (-- 149, 10). The work of the Spaniard _Escobar_, who died in A.D. 1669, ran through fifty editions, and that of _Busembaum_, professor in Cologne and afterwards rector of Munster, who died A.D. 1668, went through seventy editions. On account of the attempted a.s.sa.s.sination of Louis XV. by Damiens in A.D. 1757, with which the Jesuits and their doctrine of tyrannicide were charged, the Parliament of Toulouse in A.D. 1757, and of Paris in A.D. 1761, had Busembaum's book publicly burnt, and several popes, Alexander VII., VIII., and Innocent XI., condemned a number of propositions from the moral writings of these and other Jesuits. Among polemical writers the most distinguished were _Beca.n.u.s_, who died in A.D. 1624, and _Bossuet_ (-- 153, 7). Among the Jansenists the most prominent controversialists were _Nicole_ and _Arnauld_, who, in order to escape the reproach of Calvinism, sought to prove the Catholic doctrine of the supper to be the same as that of the apostles, and were answered by the Reformed theologians Claude and Jurieu. In apologetics the leading place is occupied by _Pascal_, with his brilliant "_Pensees_." _Huetius_, a French bishop and editor of Origen, who died in A.D. 1721, replied to Spinoza's attacks on the Pentateuch, and applying to reason itself the Cartesian principle, that philosophy must begin with doubt, pointed the doubter to the supernatural revealed truths in the Catholic church as the only anchor of salvation. The learned Jesuit _Dionysius Petavius_, who died in A.D. 1652, edited Epiphanius and wrote gigantic chronological works and numerous violent polemics against Calvinists and Jansenists. His chief work is the unfinished patristic-dogmatic treatise in five vols. folio, A.D. 1680, "_De theologicis Dogmatibus_." The Oratorian _Thoma.s.sinus_ wrote an able archaeological work: "_Vetus et Nova Eccl. Disciplina circa Beneficia et Beneficiarios_."

2. In church history, besides those named in -- 5, 2, we may mention Pagi, the keen critic and corrector of Baronius. The study of sources was vigorously pursued. We have collections of mediaeval writings and doc.u.ments by Sirmond, D'Achery, Mabillon, Martene, Baluzius; of acts of councils by Labbe and Cossart, those of France by _Jac. Sirmond_, and of Spain by Aguirre; acts of the martyrs by _Ruinart_; monastic rules by _Holstenius_, a pervert, who became Vatican librarian, and died at Rome A.D. 1661.

_Dufresne Ducange_, an advocate, who died in A.D. 1688, wrote glossaries of the mediaeval and barbarous Latin and Greek, indispensable for the study of doc.u.ments belonging to those times. The greatest prodigy of learning was _Mabillon_, who died in A.D. 1707, a Benedictine of St. Maur, and historian of his order. _Pet. de Marca_, who died Archbishop of Paris A.D.

1662, wrote the famous work on the Gallican liberties "_De Concordia Sacerdotii et Imperii_." The Jansenist doctor of the Sorbonne, _Elias du Pin_, who died A.D. 1719, wrote "_Nouvelle Bibliotheque des Auteurs Eccles._" in forty-seven vols. The Jesuit Maimbourg, died A.D. 1686, compiled several party histories of Wiclifism, Lutheranism, and Calvinism; but as a Gallican was deprived of office by the pope, and afterwards supported by a royal pension. The Antwerp Jesuits Bolland, Henschen, Papebroch started, in A.D. 1643, the gigantic work "_Acta Sanctorum_,"

carried on by the learned members of their order in Belgium, known as _Bollandists_. It was stopped by the French invasion of A.D. 1794, when it had reached October 15th with the fifty-third folio vol. The Belgian Jesuits continued the work from A.D. 1845-1867, reaching in six vols. the end of October, but not displaying the ability and liberality of their predecessors. In Venice _Paul Sarpi_ (-- 155, 2) wrote a history of the Tridentine Council, one of the most brilliant historical works of any period. _Leo Allatius_, a Greek convert at Rome, who died in A.D. 1669, wrote a work to show the agreement of the Eastern and Western churches.

Cardinal _Bona_ distinguished himself as a liturgical writer.-In France pulpit eloquence reached the highest pitch in such men as Flechier, Bossuet, Bourdaloue, Fenelon, Ma.s.sillon, and Bridaine. In Vienna _Abraham a St. Clara_ inveighed in a humorous, grotesque way against the corruption of manners, with an undercurrent of deep moral earnestness. Similar in style and spirit, but much more deeply sunk in Catholic superst.i.tion, was his contemporary the Capuchin _Martin of Cochem_, who missionarized the Rhine Provinces and western Germany for forty years, and issued a large number of popular religious tracts.-Continuation, -- 165, 14.

3. _Art and Poetry (-- 149, 15)._-The greatest master of the musical school founded by Palestrina was _Allegri_, whose _Miserere_ is performed yearly on the Wednesday afternoon of Pa.s.sion Week in the Sistine Chapel in Rome.

The oratorio originated from the application of the lofty music of this school to dramatic scenes drawn from the Bible, for purely musical and not theatrical performance. Philip Neri patronized this music freely in his oratory, from which it took the name. This new church music became gradually more and more secularized and approximated to the ordinary opera style.-In _ecclesiastical architecture_ the Renaissance style still prevailed, but debased with senseless, tasteless ornamentation.-In the Italian school of _painting_ the decline, both in creative power and imitative skill, was very marked from the end of the sixteenth century. In Spain during the seventeenth century religious painting reached a high point of excellence in Murillo of Seville, who died in A.D. 1682, a master in representing calm meditation and entranced felicity.-The two greatest _poets_ of Spain, the creators of the Spanish drama, _Lope de Vega_ (died A.D. 1635) and _Pedro Calderon_ (died A.D. 1681), both at first soldiers and afterwards priests, flourished during this century. The elder excelled the younger, not only in fruitfulness and versatility (1,500 comedies, 320 autos, -- 115, 12, etc.), but also in poetic genius and patriotism.

Calderon, with his 122 dramas, 73 festival plays, 200 preludes, etc., excelled De Vega in artistic expression and beauty of imagery. Both alike glorify the Inquisition, but occasionally subordinate Mary and the saints to the great redemption of the cross.-Specially deserving of notice is the n.o.ble German Jesuit _Friedr. von Spee_, died A.D. 1635. His spiritual songs show deep love to the Saviour and a profound feeling for nature, approaching in some respects the style of the evangelical hymn-writers.

Spee was a keen but unsuccessful opponent of witch prosecution. Another eminent poetic genius of the age was the Jesuit _Jac. Balde_ of Munich, who died in A.D. 1688. He is at his best in lyrical poetry. A deep religious vein runs through all his Latin odes, in which he enthusiastically appeals to the Virgin to raise him above all earthly pa.s.sions. To Herder belongs the merit of rescuing him from oblivion.

III. The Lutheran Church.

-- 159. Orthodoxy and its Battles.(21)

The Formula of Concord commended itself to the hearts and intelligences of Lutherans, and secured a hundred years' supremacy of orthodoxy, notwithstanding two Christological controversies. Gradually, however, a new dogmatic scholasticism arose, which had the defects as well as the excellences of the mediaeval system. The orthodoxy of this school deteriorated, on the one hand, into violent polemic on confessional differences, and, on the other, into undue depreciation of outward forms in favour of a spiritual life and personal piety. These tendencies are represented by the Syncretist and Pietist controversies.

1. _Christological Controversies._-(1) _The Cryptist and Kenotist Controversy_ between the Giessen and Tubingen theologians, in A.D. 1619, about Christ's state of humiliation, led to the publication of many violent treatises down to A.D. 1626. The Kenotists of Giessen, with Mentzer and Feuerborn at their head, a.s.signed the humiliation only to the human nature, and explained it as an actual ????s??, _i.e._ a complete but voluntary resigning of the omnipresence and omnipotence immanent in His divinity (?t?s??, but not ???s??), yet so that He could have them at His command at any moment, _e.g._ in His miracles. The Cryptists of Tubingen, with Luc. Osiander and Thumm at their head, ascribed humiliation to both natures, and taught that all the while Christ, even _secundum carnem_, was omnipresent and ruled both in heaven and earth, but in a hidden way; the humiliation is no ????s??, but only a ??????. After repeated unsuccessful attempts to bring about a reconciliation, John George, Elector of Saxony, in A.D. 1623, accepted the Kenotic doctrine. But the two parties still continued their strife.(22)-2. _The Lutkemann Controversy_ on the humanity of Christ in death was of far less importance. Lutkemann, a professor of philosophy at Rostock, affirmed that in death, because the unity of soul and body was broken, Christ was not true man, and that to deny this was to destroy the reality and the saving power of his death. He held that the incarnation of Christ lasted through death, because the divine nature was connected, not only with the soul, but also with the body. Lutkemann was obliged to quit Rostock, but got an honourable call to Brunswick as superintendent and court preacher, and there died in A.D. 1655. Later Lutherans treated the controversy as a useless logomachy.

2. _The Syncretist Controversy._-Since the Hofmann controversy (-- 141, 15) the University of Helmstadt had shown a decided humanistic tendency, and gave even greater freedom in the treatment of doctrines than the Formula of Concord, which it declined to adopt. To this school belonged _George Calixt_, and from A.D. 1614 for forty years he laboured in promoting its interests. He was a man of wide culture and experience, who had obtained a thorough knowledge of church history, and acquaintance with the most distinguished theologians of all churches, during his extensive foreign travels, and therewith a geniality and breadth of view not by any means common in those days. He did not indeed desire any formal union between the different churches, but rather a mutual recognition, love, and tolerance. For this purpose he set, as a secondary principle of Christian theology, besides Scripture, as the primary principle, the consensus of the first five centuries as the common basis of all churches, and sought to represent later ecclesiastical differences as unessential or of less consequence. This was denounced by strict Lutherans as Syncretism and Cryptocatholicism. In A.D. 1639 the Hanoverian preacher Buscher charged him with being a secret Papist. After the Thorn Conference of A.D. 1645, a violent controversy arose, which divided Lutherans into two camps. On the one side were the universities of Helmstadt and Konigsberg; on the other hand, the theologians of the electorate of Saxony, Hulsemann of Leipzig, Waller of Dresden, and Abr. Calov, who died professor in Wittenberg in A.D. 1686. Calov wrote twenty-six controversial treatises on this subject.

Jena vainly sought to mediate between the parties. In the _Theologorum Sax. Consensus repet.i.tus Fidei vera Lutheranae_ of A.D. 1655, for which the Wittenberg divines failed to secure symbolical authority, the following sentiments were branded as Syncretist errors: That in the Apostles' Creed everything is taught that is necessary to salvation; that the Catholic and Reformed systems retain hold of fundamental truths; that original sin is of a merely privative nature; that G.o.d _indirecte, improprie, et per accidens_ is the cause of sin; that the doctrine of the Trinity was first clearly revealed in the New Testament, etc. Calixt died A.D. 1656 in the midst of most violent controversies. His son Ulrich continued these, but had neither the ability nor moderation of his father. Even the peaceably disposed Conference of Ca.s.sel of A.D. 1661 (-- 154, 4) only poured oil on the flames. The strife lost itself at last in actions for damages between the younger Calixt and his bitter opponent Strauch of Wittenberg. Wearied of these fruitless discussions, theologians now turned their attention to the rising movement of Pietism.(23)

3. _The Pietist Controversy in its First Stage._-_Philip Jacob Spener_ born in Alsace in A.D. 1635, was in his thirty-first year, on account of his spirituality, distinguished gifts, and singularly wide scholars.h.i.+p, made president of a clerical seminary at Frankfort-on-Main. In A.D. 1686 he became chief court preacher at Dresden, and provost of Berlin in A.D.

1691, when, on account of his intense earnestness in pastoral work, he had been expelled from Dresden. He died in Berlin in A.D. 1705. His year's attendance at Geneva after the completion of his curriculum at Stra.s.sburg had an important influence on his whole future career. He there learned to value discipline for securing purity of life as well as of doctrine, and was also powerfully impressed by the practical lectures of Labadie (-- 163, 7) and the reading of the "Practice of Piety" and other ascetical writings of the English Puritans (-- 162, 3). Though strongly attached to the Lutheran church, he believed that in the restoration of evangelical doctrine by the Wittenberg Reformation, "not by any means had all been accomplished that needed to be done," and that Lutheranism in the form of the orthodoxy of the age had lost the living power of the reformers, and was in danger of burying its talent in dead and barren service of the letter. There was therefore a pressing need of a new and wider reformation. In the Lutheran church, as the depository of sound doctrine, he recognised the fittest field for the development of a genuinely Christian life; but he heartily appreciated any true spiritual movement in whatsoever church it arose. He went back from scholastic dogmatics to Holy Scripture as the living source of saving knowledge, subst.i.tuted for the external orthodox theology the theology of the heart, demanded evidence of this in a pious Christian walk: these were the means by which he sought to promote his reformation. A whole series of Lutheran theologians of the seventeenth century (-- 159) had indeed contributed to this same end by their devotional works, hymns, and sermons. What was new in Spener was the conviction of the insufficiency of the hitherto used means and the undue prominence given to doctrine, and his consequent effort vigorously made to raise the tone of the Christian life. In his childlike, pious humility he regarded himself as by no means called to carry out this work, but felt it his duty to insist upon the necessity of it, and indicate the means that should be used to realize it. This he did in his work of A.D. 1675, "_Pia Desideria_." As it was his aim to recommend biblical practical Christianity to the heart of the individual Christian, he revived the almost forgotten doctrine "Of Spiritual Priesthood" in a separate treatise. In A.D. 1670 he began to have meetings in his own house for encouraging Christian piety in the community, which soon were imitated in other places. Spener's influence on the Lutheran church became greater and wider through his position at Dresden. Stirred up by his spirit, three young graduates of Leipzig. A. H. Francke, Paul Anton, and J. K. Schade, formed in A.D. 1686 a private _Collegia Philobiblica_ for practical exposition of Scripture and the delivery of public exegetical lectures at the university in the German language. But the Leipzig theological faculty, with J. B. Carpzov II. at its head, charged them with despising the public ordinances as well as theological science, and with favouring the views of separatists. The _Collegia Philobiblica_ was suppressed, and the three friends obliged to leave Leipzig in A.D. 1690. This marked the beginning of the Pietist controversies. Soon afterwards Spener was expelled from Dresden; but in his new position at Berlin he secured great influence in the appointments to the theological faculty of the new university founded at Halle by the peace-loving elector Frederick III. of Brandenburg, in opposition to the contentious universities of Wittenberg and Leipzig. Francke, Anton, and Breithaupt were made professors of theology. Halle now won the position which Wittenberg and Geneva had held during the Reformation period, and the Pietist controversy thus entered upon a second, more general, and more critical epoch of its history.(24)-Continuation, -- 166, 1.

4. _Theological Literature (-- 142, 6)._-The "_Philologia Sacra_" of _Sol.

Gla.s.sius_ of Jena, published in A.D. 1623, has ranked as a cla.s.sical work for almost two centuries. From A.D. 1620 till the end of the century, a lively controversy was carried on about the Greek style of the New Testament, in which Lutherans, and especially the Reformed, took part. The purists maintained that the New Testament idiom was pure and cla.s.sical, thinking that its inspiration would otherwise be endangered. The first historico-critical introduction to the Scriptures was the "_Officina Biblica_" of Walther in A.D. 1636. _Pfeiffer_ of Leipzig gained distinction in biblical criticism and hermeneutics by his "_Critica Sacra_" of A.D. 1680 and "_Hermeneutica_" of A.D. 1684. Exegesis now made progress, notwithstanding its dependence on traditional interpretations of doctrinal proof pa.s.sages and its mechanical theory of inspiration. The most distinguished exegetes were _Erasmus Schmidt_ of Wittenberg, who died in A.D. 1637: he wrote a Latin translation of New Testament with admirable notes, and a very useful concordance of the Greek New Testament, under the t.i.tle ?ae???, which has been revised and improved by Bruder; _Seb.

Schmidt_ of Stra.s.sburg, who wrote commentaries on several Old Testament books and on the Pauline epistles; and _Abr. Calov_ of Wittenberg, who died in A.D. 1686, in his 74th year, whose "_Biblia Ill.u.s.trata_" in four vols., is a work of amazing research and learning, but composed wholly in the interests of dogmatics.-Little was done in the department of church history. Calixt awakened a new enthusiasm for historical studies, and _Gottfried Arnold_ (-- 159, 2), pietist, chiliast, and theosophist, bitterly opposed to every form of orthodoxy, and finding true Christianity only in sects, separatists, and heretics, set the whole theological world astir by his "_Unparteiische Kirchen- und Ketzer-historie_," in A.D. 1699 (-- 5, 3).

5. The orthodox school applied itself most diligently to dogmatics in a strictly scholastic form. _Hutter_ of Wittenberg, who died in A.D. 1616, wrote "_Loci communes theologici_" and "_Compendium Loc. Theol._" _John Gerhard_ of Jena, who died in A.D. 1637, published in A.D. 1610 his "_Loc.

Theologici_" in nine folio vols., the standard of Lutheran orthodoxy. _J.

Andr. Quenstedt_ of Wittenberg, who died A.D. 1688, exhibited the best and worst of Lutheran scholasticism in his "_Theol. didactico-polemica_." The most important dogmatist of the Calixtine school was Conrad Horneius.

Calixt himself is known as a dogmatist only by his lectures; but to him we owe the generally adopted distinction between morals and dogmatics as set forth in his "_Epitome theol. Moralis_."-Polemics were carried on vigorously. _Hoe von Hoenegg_ of Dresden (-- 154, 3, 4) and _Hutter_ of Wittenberg were bitter opponents of Calvinism and Romanism. Hutter was styled by his friends _Malleus Calvinistorum_ and _Redonatus Lutherus_.

The ablest and most dignified polemic against Romanism was that of _John Gerhard_ in his "_Confessio Catholica_." _Nich. Hunnius_, son of aegid.

Hunnius, and Hutter's successor at Wittenberg, from A.D. 1623 superintendent at Lubeck, distinguished himself as an able controversialist against the papacy by his "_Demonstratio Ministerii Lutherani Divini atque Legitimi_." Against the Socinians he wrote his "_Examen Errorum Photinianorum_," and against the fanatics a "Chr.

Examination of the new Paracelsist and Weigelian Theology." His princ.i.p.al work is his "_???s?e??? de Fundamentali Dissensu Doctrinae Luth. et Calvin_." His "_Epitome Credendorum_" went through nineteen editions. The most incessant controversialist was _Abr. Calov_, who wrote against Syncretists, Papists, Socinians, Arminians, etc.-Continuation, -- 167, 4.

-- 160. The Religious Life.

The attachment of the Lutheran church of this age to pure doctrine led to a one-sided over-estimation of it, often ending in dead orthodoxy. But a succession of able and learned theologians, who recognised the importance of heart theology as well as sound doctrine, corrected this evil tendency by Scripture study, preaching, and faithful pastoral work. A n.o.ble and moderate mysticism, which was thoroughly orthodox in its beliefs, and opposing orthodoxy only where that had become external and mechanical, had many influential representatives throughout the whole country, especially during the first half of it. But also separatists, mystics, and theosophists made their appearance, who were decidedly hostile to the church. Sacred song flourished afresh amid the troubles of the Thirty Years' War; but gradually lost its sublime objective church character, which was poorly compensated by a more flowing versification, polished language, and elegant form. A corresponding advance was also made in church music.

1. _Mysticism and Asceticism._-At the head of the orthodox mystics stands _John Arndt_. His "True Christianity" and his "_Paradiesgartlein_" are the most widely read Lutheran devotional books, but called forth the bitter hostility of those devoted to the maintenance of a barren orthodoxy. He died in A.D. 1621, as general superintendent at Celle. He had been expelled from Anhalt because he would not condemn exorcism as G.o.dless superst.i.tion, and was afterwards in Brunswick publicly charged by his colleague Denecke and other Lutheran zealots with Papacy, Calvinism, Osiandrianism, Flacianism, Schwenckfeldism, Paracelsism, Alchemism, etc.

As men of a similar spirit, antic.i.p.ators of the school of Spener, may be named _John Gerhard_ of Jena, with his "_Meditationes Sacrae_" and "_Schola pietatis_" and _Christian Scriver_, whose "Gotthold's Emblems" is well known to English readers. _Rahtmann_ of Danzig maintained that the word of G.o.d in Scripture has not in itself the power to enlighten and convert men except through the gracious influence of G.o.d's Spirit. He was supported, after a long delay, in A.D. 1626 by the University of Rostock, but opposed by Konigsberg, Jena, and Wittenberg. In A.D. 1628, the Elector of Saxony obtained the opinion of the most famous theologians of his realm against Rahtmann; but his death, which soon followed, brought the controversy to a close.-The Wurttemberg theologian, _John Valentine Andrea_, grandson of one of the authors of the Formula of Concord, was a man of striking originality, famous for his satires on the corruptions of the age. His "Order of Rosicrucians," published at Ca.s.sel in A.D. 1614, ridiculed the absurdities of astrology and alchemy in the form of a satirical romance.

His influence on the church of his times was great and wholesome, so that even Spener exclaimed: "Had I the power to call any one from the dead for the good of the church, it would be J. V. Andrea." His later devotional work was almost completely forgotten until attention was called to it by Herder.(25)

2. _Mysticism and Theosophy._-A mystico-theosophical tendency, partly in outward connexion with the church, partly without and in open opposition to it, was fostered by the alchemist writings of Agrippa and Paracelsus, the theosophical works of Weigel (-- 146, 2) and by the profound revelations of the inspired shoemaker of Gorlitz, _Jacob Boehme_, _philosophus teutonicus_, the most talented of all the theosophists. In a remarkable degree he combined a genius for speculation with the most unfeigned piety that held firmly by the old Lutheran faith. Even when an itinerant tradesman, he felt himself for a period of seven days in calm repose, surrounded by the divine light. But he dates his profound theosophical enlightenment from a moment in A.D. 1594, when as a young journeyman and married, thrown into an ecstasy, he obtained a knowledge of the divine mysteries down to the ultimate principles of all things and their inmost quality. His theosophy, too, like that of the ancient gnostics, springs out of the question about the origin of evil. He solves it by a.s.suming an emanation of all things from G.o.d, in whom fire and light, bitter and sweet qualities, are thoroughly tempered and perfectly combined, while in the creature derived by emanation from him they are in disharmony, but are reconciled and reduced to G.o.dlike harmony through regeneration in Christ. Though opposed by Calov, he was befriended by the Dresden consistory. Boehme died in A.D. 1624, in retirement at Gorlitz, in the arms of his family.(26)-In close connexion with Boehmists, separatists, and Pietists, yet differing from them all, _Gottfried Arnold_ abused orthodoxy and canonized the heretics of all ages. In A.D. 1700 he wrote "The Mystery of the Divine Sophia." When Adam, originally man and woman, fell, his female nature, the heavenly Sophia, was taken from him, and in his place a woman of flesh was made for him out of a rib; in order again to restore the paradisiacal perfection Christ brought again the male part into a virgin's womb, so that the new creature, the regenerate, stands before G.o.d as a "male-virgin"; but carnal love destroys again the connexion thus secured with the heavenly Sophia. But the very next year he reached a turning-point in his life. He not only married, but in consequence accepted several appointments in the Lutheran church, without, however, signing the Formula of Concord, and applied his literary skill to the production of devotional tracts.

3. _Sacred Song (-- 142, 3)._-The first epoch of the development of sacred song in this century corresponds to the period of the Thirty Years' War, A.D. 1618-1648. The Psalms of David were the model and pattern of the sacred poets, and the profoundest songs of the cross and consolation bear the evident impress of the times, and so individual feeling comes more into prominence. The influence of Opitz was also felt in the church song, in the greater attention given to correctness and purity of language and to the careful construction of verse and rhyme. Instead of the rugged terseness and vigour of earlier days, we now find often diffuse and overflowing utterances of the heart. _John Hermann_ of Glogau, who died in A.D. 1647, composed 400 songs, embracing these: "Alas! dear Lord, what evil hast Thou done?"; "O Christ, our true and only Light"; "Ere yet the dawn hath filled the skies"; "O G.o.d, thou faithful G.o.d." _Paul Flemming_, a physician in Holstein, who died in A.D. 1640, wrote on his journey to Persia, "Where'er I go, whate'er my task." _Matthew Meyffart_, professor and pastor at Erfurt, who died in A.D. 1642, wrote "Jerusalem, thou city fair and high." _Martin Rinkart_, pastor at Eilenburg in Saxony, who died A.D. 1648, wrote, "Now thank we all our G.o.d." _Appelles von Lowenstern_, who died A.D. 1648, composed, "When anguished and perplexed, with many a sigh and tear." _Joshua Stegmann_, superintendent in Rinteln, who died A.D. 1632, wrote, "Abide among us with thy grace." _Joshua Wegelin_, pastor in Augsburg and Pressburg, wrote, "Since Christ is gone to heaven, his home." _Justus Gesenius_, superintendent in Hanover, who died in A.D.

1673, wrote, "When sorrow and remorse." _Tob. Clausnitzer_, pastor in the Palatinate, who died A.D. 1648, wrote, "Blessed Jesus, at thy word." The poets named mostly belong to the first Silesian school gathered round Opitz. A more independent position, though not uninfluenced by Opitz, is taken up by _John Rist_, who died in A.D. 1667. He composed 658 sacred songs, of which many are remarkable for their vigour, solemnity, and elevation; _e.g._ "Arise, the kingdom is at hand"; "Sink not yet, my soul, to slumber"; "O living Bread from heaven"; "Praise and thanks to Thee be sung." At the head of the Konigsberg school of the same age stood _Simon Dach_, professor of poetry at Konigsberg, who died in A.D. 1659. He composed 150 spiritual songs, among which the best known are, "O how blessed, faithful souls, are ye!" "Wouldest thou inherit life with Christ on high?" The most distinguished members of this school are: _Henry Alberti_, organist at Konigsberg, author of "G.o.d who madest earth and heaven"; and _George Weissel_, pastor in Konigsberg, who died in A.D.

1655, author of "Lift up your heads, ye mighty gates."

4. From the middle of the seventeenth century sacred song became more subjective, and so tended to fall into a diversity of groups. No longer does the church sing through its poets, but the poets give direct expression to their individual feelings. Confessional songs are less frequent, and their place is taken by hymns of edification with reference to various conditions of life; songs of death, the cross and consolation, and hymns for the family become more numerous. With objectivity special features of the church song disappear in the hymns of the period; but some of its essential characteristics remain, especially the popular form and contents, the freshness, liveliness, and simplicity of diction, the truths of personal experience, the fulness of faith, etc. We distinguish three groups: (1) _The Transition Group_, pa.s.sing from objectivity to subjectivity. Its greatest masters, indeed after Luther the greatest sacred poet of the evangelical church, is undoubtedly _Paul Gerhardt_, who died A.D. 1676, the faith witness of the Lutheran faith under the wars and in persecution (-- 154, 4). In him we find the new subjective tendency in its n.o.blest form; but there is also present the old objective style, giving immediate expression to the consciousness of the church, adhering tenaciously to the confession, and a grand popular ring that reminds us of the fulness and power of Luther. His 131 songs, if not all church songs in the narrower sense, are almost all genuine poems: _e.g._ "All my heart this night rejoices"; "Cometh suns.h.i.+ne after rain"; "Go forth, my heart, and seek delight"; "Be thou content: be still before"; "O world, behold upon the tree"; "Now all the woods are sleeping"; and "Ah, wounded head, must thou?" based on Bernard's _Salve, caput cruentatum_. To this school also belongs _George Neumark_, librarian at Weimar, who died in A.D. 1681, author of "Leave G.o.d to order all thy ways." Also _John Franck_, burgomaster at Guben in Lusatia, who died A.D. 1677, next to Gerhardt the greatest poet of his age. His 110 songs are less popular and hearty, but more melodious than Gerhardt's; _e.g._ "Redeemer of the nations, come"; "Ye heavens, oh haste your dews to shed"; "Deck thyself, my soul, with gladness." _George Albinus_, pastor at Naumburg, died A.D. 1679, wrote: "Not in anger smite us, Lord"; "World, farewell! Of thee I'm tired."-(2) The _next stage_ of the sacred song took the Canticles instead of the Psalter as its model. The spiritual marriage of the soul is its main theme. Feeling and fancy are predominant, and often degenerate into sentimentality and trifling. It obtained a new impulse from the addition of a mystical element. _Angelus Silesius_ (-- 156, 4) was the most distinguished representative of this school, and while Protestant he composed several beautiful songs; _e.g._ "O Love, who formedst me to wear"; "Thou holiest Love, whom most I love"; "Loving Shepherd, kind and true." _Christian Knorr v. Rosenroth_, who died at Sulzbach A.D. 1689, wrote "Dayspring of eternity." _Ludamilie Elizabeth_, Countess of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, who died in A.D. 1672, wrote 215 "Songs of Jesus."

_Caspar Neumann_, professor and pastor at Breslau, died A.D. 1715, wrote, "Lord, on earth I dwell in pain."-(3) _Those of Spener's Time and Spirit_, men who longed for the regeneration of the church by practical Christianity. Their hymns are for the most part characterized by healthy piety and deep G.o.dliness. Spener's own poems are of slight importance. _J.

Jac. Schutz_, Spener's friend, a lawyer in Frankfort, who died A.D. 1690, composed only one, but that a very beautiful hymn: "All praise and thanks to G.o.d most high." _Samuel Rodigast_, rector in Berlin, died A.D. 1708, wrote, "Whate'er my G.o.d ordains is right." _Laurentius Laurentii_, musical director at Bremen, died A.D. 1722, wrote, "Is my heart athirst to know?"

"O thou essential Word."-_Gottfried Arnold_, died A.D. 1714, wrote, "Thou who breakest every chain"; "How blest to all thy followers, Lord, the road!"-In Denmark, where previously translations of German hymns were used, _Thomas Kingo_, from A.D. 1677 Bishop of Funen, died A.D. 1703, was the much-honoured founder of Danish national hymnology.(27)-Continuation, -- 166, 6.

5. _Sacred Music (-- 142, 5)._-The church music in the beginning of the seventeenth century was affected by the Italian school, just as church song was by the influence of Opitz. The greatest master during the transition stage was _John Cruger_, precentor in the church of St.

Nicholas in Berlin, died A.D. 1662. He was to the chorale what Gerhardt was to the church song. We have seventy-one new melodies of his, admirably adapted to Gerhardt's, Hunnius's, Franck's, Dach's, and Rinkart's songs, and used in the church till the present time. With the second half of the century we enter on a new period, in which expression and musical declamation perish. Choir singing now, to a great extent, supersedes congregational singing. _Henry Schutz_, organist to the Elector of Saxony, died A.D. 1672, is the great master of this Italian sacred concert style.

He introduced musical compositions on pa.s.sages selected from the Psalms, Canticles, and prophets, in his "_Symphoniae Sacrae_" of A.D. 1629. After a short time a radical reform was made by _John Rosenmuller_, organist of Wolfenb.u.t.tel, died A.D. 1686. A reaction against the exclusive adoption of the Italian style was made by _Andr. Hammerschmidt_, organist at Zittau, died A.D. 1675, one of the n.o.blest and most pious of German musicians. By working up the old church melodies in the modern style, he brought the old hymns again into favour, and set hymns of contemporary poets to bright airs suited to modern standards of taste. The accomplished musician _Rud.

Ahle_, organist and burgomaster at Muhlhausen, died A.D. 1673, introduced his own beautiful airs into the church music for Sundays and festivals.

His sacred airs are distinguished for youthful freshness and power, penetrated by a holy earnestness, and quite free from that secularity and frivolousness which soon became unpleasantly conspicuous in such music.-Continuation, -- 167, 7.

6. _The Christian Life of the People._-The rich development of sacred poetry proves the wonderful fulness and spirituality of the religious life of this age, notwithstanding the many chilling separatistic controversies that prevailed during the terrible upheaval of the Thirty Years' War. The abundance of devotional literature of permanent worth witnesses to the diligence and piety of the Lutheran pastors. Ernest the Pious of Saxe-Gotha, who died A.D. 1675, stands forth as the ideal of a Christian prince. For the Christian instruction of his people he issued, in the midst of the confusion and horrors of the war, the famous Weimar or Ernestine exposition of the Bible, upon which John Gerhard wrought diligently, along with other distinguished Jena theologians. It appeared first in A.D. 1641, and by A.D. 1768 had gone through fourteen large editions. A like service was done for South Germany by the "Wurttemberg Summaries," composed by three Wurttemberg theologians at the request of Duke Eberhard III., a concise, practical exposition of all the books of Scripture, which for a century and a half formed the basis of the weekly services (_Bibelstunden_) at Wurttemberg.-Continuation, -- 167, 8.

7. _Missions._-In the Lutheran church, missionary enterprise had rather fallen behind (-- 142, 8). Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden carried on the Lapp mission with new zeal, and Denmark, too, gave ready a.s.sistance. A Norwegian pastor, Thomas Westen, deserves special mention as the apostle of the mission. A German, Peter Heyling of Lubeck, went on his own account as a missionary to Abyssinia in A.D. 1635, while several of his friends at the same time went to other eastern lands. Of these others no trace whatever has been found. An Abyssinian abbot who came to Europe brought news of Heyling. At first he was hindered by the machinations of the Jesuits; but when these were expelled, he found favour at court, became minister to the king, and married one of the royal family. What finally came of him and his work is unknown. Toward the end of the century two great men, the philosopher Leibnitz and the founder of the Halle Orphanage, A. H. Francke, warmly espoused the cause of foreign missions.

The ambitious and pretentious schemes of the philosopher ended in nothing, but Francke made his orphanages, training colleges and centres from which the German Lutheran missions to the heathens were vigorously organized and successfully wrought.-Continuation, -- 167, 9.

IV. The Reformed Church.

-- 161. Theology and its Battles.