Pox: An American History Part 6

93 Maus quoted in De Bevoise, Agents of Apocalypse, 116. Gillett, Army Medical Department, 178.

94 USSGPHMHS 1904, 168. Taylor, "Cleaning Cities," BG, Mar. 16, 1900, 3. Snodgra.s.s, "Smallpox and Vaccination in the Philippines," 15.

95 LeRoy, "Philippines Health Problem," 778. Greenleaf, "Brief Statement," 165, 159.

96 "Philippine Tariff Bill Pa.s.sed by House," NYT, Dec. 19, 1901, 1. On conditions in Batangas, see Florencio R. Caedo, provincial secretary, to William Howard Taft, Civil Governor of the Philippines, Dec. 18, 1901, in USSCOP, Part 2: 887. "Telegraphic Orders Issued by Brig. Gen. J. F. Bell to Station Commanders in the Provinces of Tayabas, Batangas, and Laguna," in ibid., Part 2: 160631.

97 For concise accounts of the Batangas campaign, see Amy Blitz, The Contested State: American Foreign Policy and Regime Change in the Philippines (New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2000), 4243; Kramer, Blood of Government, 15254; and Brian McAllister Linn, The Philippine War, 18991902 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2000), 21924, 300305. For a fuller history, see Glenn Anthony May, Battle for Batangas: A Philippine Province at War (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991).

98 Blitz, Contested State, 4243.

99 Bell, "Telegraphic Circular No. 22," Dec. 24, 1901, in USSCOP, Part II: 1628. Bell, "Telegraphic Circular No. 17," Dec. 23, 1901, in ibid., Part II: 1621; "Telegraphic Circular No. 19," Dec. 24, 1901, in ibid., Part II: 1621; "Telegraphic Circular No. 20," in ibid., Part II: 1626.

100 On reconcentration, see Kramer, Blood of Government, 15253.

101 Smallman-Raynor and Cliff, War Epidemics, 61424. De Bevoise, Agents of Apocalypse.

102 USSCOP, Part 3: 2878.

103 "Directions for Vaccination of Natives. Copy of Telegram. Batangas, January 16, 10:40 a.m.," in AGOMHP, Vol. 528: San Pablo, Laguna Province, P.I. [first entry], Dec. 31, 1901, 4. Accompanying telegram from General J. F. Bell in ibid., 45. See De Bevoise, Agents of Apocalypse, 117.

104 Blitz, Contested State, 43. Linn, Philippine War, 219. Smallman-Raynor and Cliff, War Epidemics, 30748. On Filipinos' memories of the epidemics and the war, see De Bevoise, Agents of Apocalypse , ix.

105 Edward Thomas Curran, "Treatment of Filipinos," NYT, May 3, 1903, 23.

106 "Stamping Out Disease in the Philippines," NYT, June 23, 1902, 1.

107 "Topics of the Times," NYT, Aug. 18, 1902, 6. See, for example, "Havana's Health Is Good: Wonderful Changes Wrought by the Army of Occupation," WP, Mar. 23, 1902, 6; LeRoy, "Philippines Health Problem"; "Manila Is Healthful," NYT, Aug. 19, 1903, 8; "Life in the Philippines," Omaha World Herald, May 25, 1905, 4. See also Carl Crow, America and the Philippines (Garden City and New York: Doubleday, Page & Co., 1914), 107; Robley D. Evans, An Admiral's Log: Being Continued Reflections of Naval Life (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1910), esp. 22223; and the quotations presented in Kristine A. Campbell, "Knots in the Fabric: Richard Pearson Strong and the Bilibid Prison Vaccine Trials, 19051906," BHM, 68 (1994), esp. 60612.

108 USPC 1905, 72, 11. USSGPHMHS 1907, 81.

109 USPC 1907, 73, 76. Snodgra.s.s, "Smallpox and Vaccination in the Philippines," 15. In the finest study of the Philippine health crisis of the war years, Ken De Bevoise suggests that the claims of American officials in this regard should be taken seriously. Writing of the 19023 period, De Bevoise says, "The successful immunizations . . . may have provided a radical discontinuity with past experience sufficient to impel changed beliefs and behaviors. As popular resistance to vaccination began to break down, the cultural groundwork for future control efforts was laid." De Bevoise, Agents of Apocalypse, 117.

110 USPC 1904, 105. De Bevoise, Agents of Apocalypse, 188. Warwick Anderson has suggested that "Probably not more than half the vaccinations were successful." Anderson, "Immunization and Hygiene," 9. Glynn and Glynn, Life and Death of Smallpox, 193. On eradication, see Ken De Bevoise, "Until G.o.d Knows When: Smallpox in Late-Colonial Philippines," Pacific Historical Review, 59 (1990), 185; and De Bevoise, Agents of Apocalypse, 188. De Bevoise notes that "a case imported into Mindoro allowed the disease to take one last bow in 19481949." Idem, "Until G.o.d Knows When," 185.

111 Ames, "Vaccination of Porto Rico," 513. USSGPHMHS 1907, 81. Snodgra.s.s, "Smallpox and Vaccination in the Philippines," 18.

FIVE: THE STABLE AND THE LABORATORY.

1 "New Jersey Notes," PI, June 3, 1902, 3. On the development of product liability law during the early twentieth century, see MacPherson v. Buick, 217 NY 382 (1916); and H. Gerald Chapin, Handbook of the Law of Torts (St. Paul: West Publis.h.i.+ng Co. 1917), 51720. See also Barbara Young Welke, Recasting American Liberty: Gender, Race, Law, and the Railroad Revolution, 18651920 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001), esp. 1420; John Fabian Witt, The Accidental Republic: Crippled Workingmen, Dest.i.tute Widows, and the Remaking of American Law (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004), esp. 23, 7576.

2 Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Annual Message of the President to Congress, Jan. 6, 1941 (excerpt), http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/decade01.asp, accessed March 3, 2009. Old-age pensions, unemployment insurance, compulsory health insurance, and labor regulations for men (outside of extremely dangerous industries such as mining) were dead on arrival in the United States. Escola v. Coca Cola Bottling Co., 24 Cal. 2d 453 (1944). See David A. Moss, Socializing Security: Progressive-Era Economists and the Origins of American Social Policy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995); Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992).

3 In a useful short account, Jonathan Liebenau has examined the vaccine controversy as an important moment in the consolidation of the pharmaceutical industry in the United States; Medical Science and Medical Industry (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987), 7988. Arthur Allen provides a brisk narrative of the episode in Vaccine, 7982, 9296. A thinner account, with errors, is David E. Lilienfeld, "The First Pharmacoepidemiologic Investigations: National Drug Safety Policy in the United States, 19011902," Perspectives in Biology and Medicine , 51 (Spring 2008): 18898.

4 "No Vaccination in Camden's Boundaries," NYT, Nov. 19, 1901, 7. "Vaccine and Ant.i.toxin," ibid., Dec. 8, 1901, 6. "Vaccination and Lockjaw," NYS, Nov. 21, 1901, 6. F. M. Wood, "The Various Methods of Vaccination and Their Results," PMJ, 9 (Mar. 22, 1902), 54142. "The Cleveland Experiment," Cincinnati Lancet-Clinic, May 31, 1902, 58082.

5 "Rubbed Off Vaccine Virus," NYT, Dec. 7, 1901, 2. See, for example, "Death Follows Vaccination," NOP, Dec. 15, 1893, 4; "Death Caused by Vaccination," Interocean (Chicago), Feb. 15, 1894, 3; "Parents Fear Vaccination," Milwaukee Sentinel, Feb. 16, 1894, 8; "Caused by Vaccination: A School Girl's Awful Suffering," Bismarck Daily Tribune, Aug. 10, 1895; "Danger in Vaccination," Macon Telegraph (Georgia), Dec. 24, 1897; "Died of Virus Poisoning," PNA, Nov. 17, 1899, 7; "Death Probably Due to Vaccination," WP, Mar. 21, 1901, 3. See, generally, Sir Graham S. Wilson, The Hazards of Immunization.

6 On the implications of progressive thinking about social interdependence, see Thomas L. Haskell, The Emergence of Professional Social Science (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1977). Michael Willrich, City of Courts.

7 Wyatt v. Rome, 105 Ga. 312 (1898). Even after the enactment of the federal Biologics Control Act of 1902, state and local governments remained insulated from liability for unsafe vaccines. "The State is not a guarantor of the purity of such biological products and is not liable for injury caused by impure ones." James A. Tobey, Public Health Law, 58. See ibid., 17576. On the regulatory environment as it existed in 1901, see Charles V. Chapin, Munic.i.p.al Sanitation in the United States (Providence: The Providence Press, 1901), 57398, esp. 58084. On the growth of social intervention in American law during this period, see Willrich, City of Courts.

8 Walter Wyman, "Precis upon the Diagnosis and Treatment of Smallpox," PHR, 14, Jan. 6, 1899, 37. "Vaccination and Revaccination," CMJ, 1 (July 1902), 381. On more recent developments in U.S. vaccine regulation, see Thomas F. Burke, Lawyers, Lawsuits, and Legal Rights: The Battle over Litigation in American Society (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), 14270; Vincent A. Fulginiti et al., "Smallpox Vaccination: A Review, Part II. Adverse Effects," Clinical Infectious Diseases, 37 (2003), 25171; and Julie B. Milstein, "Regulation of Vaccines: Strengthening the Science Base," Journal of Public Health Policy, 25 (2004): 17389.

9 "Commercial Virus and Ant.i.toxin," NYT, Nov. 18, 1901, 6.

10 A burgeoning field of social science research has shed new light on the mental strategies-or "heuristics"-that ordinary people use to understand the risks of their world. For an introduction, see Paul Slovic, "Perception of Risk," SCI, new ser. 236 (1987): 28085. For an interesting critique of Slovic's ideas, see Ca.s.s R. Sunstein, "The Laws of Fear," review of Paul Slovic, The Perception of Risk (2000), Harvard Law Review, 115 (2002): 111968.

11 "Vaccinia is a specific disease, the cause of which has not been determined. We are, therefore, working somewhat in the dark." Milton J. Rosenau of the federal Hygienic Laboratory, in USROSENAU, 6.

12 USCB 1900, Vol. I: Population: Part I: Population of States and Territories, 1900, 430, 513, 549. Ibid., Vol. 8: Manufactures: States and Territories, 556. NJBOH 1901, 152.

13 "Camden's Lockjaw Panic," NYS, Nov. 16, 1901, 4. The Sun mistakenly reported the family surname as Ludwig. See U.S. Census Bureau, Twelfth Census of the United States (1900): Schedule No. 1-Population: Camden, New Jersey, Supervisor's District No. 6, Enumeration District No. 63.

14 NJBOH 1901, 371. NJBOH 1902, 3942. PBOH 1901, 1418, 3748. "Smallpox Situation in Philadelphia and Camden," MN, Nov. 30, 1901, 86768.

15 "Camden's Lockjaw Panic." "Smallpox," MN, Oct. 26, 1901, 667. On sore arms during this epidemic, see F. M. Wood, M.D. [city physician of Camden], "The Various Methods of Vaccination and Their Results," PMJ, 9 (Mar. 22, 1902), 54142; Alexander McAllister, M.D. [of Camden], "The Cause of Sore Arms in Vaccination," Transactions of the Medical Society of New Jersey, 1902 (Newark, 1902), 15357.

16 NJBOH 1901, 37172.

17 "Vaccinated Boy, Teta.n.u.s Stricken, May Recover," PNA, Nov. 11, 1901, 1. "Five Victims of Lockjaw," NYT, Nov. 17, 1901, 3. W. J. Lampton, "Teta.n.u.s Epidemics" (letter to the editor), NYS, Nov. 21, 1901, 6. George Miller Sternberg, Infection and Immunity: With Special Reference to the Prevention of Infectious Diseases (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1903), 27278, esp. 277. William Brown, "Teta.n.u.s in Toy-Pistol Wounds," BRMJ, 1 (1934): 111617. See also Frederic S. Dennis, ed., System of Surgery (Philadelphia: Lea Brothers & Co., 1895), vol. 1, 42627; William Hallock Park and Anna Wessels Williams, Pathogenic Micro-organisms: Including Bacteria and Protozoa; a Practical Manual for Students, Physicians and Health Officers (Philadelphia: Lea Brothers & Co., 1905), 222. The contemporaneous accounts of the unfolding Camden teta.n.u.s outbreak that were published in newspapers, medical journals, and the Camden Board of Health's official report, contain a number of discrepancies (including some conflicting dates, different spellings of the victims' names, and differing ages for the children). I have been able to locate most of these children in the 1900 census. In my own account, I have wherever possible used information that I have been able to confirm in at least two sources. For the Camden Board of Health report, which appears to contain a few factual errors about the cases, see "Official Report of the Camden Board of Health Concerning the Cases of Teta.n.u.s Which Occurred in Patients Who Had Been Vaccinated," Nov. 29, 1901, reprinted in Bulletin of the North Carolina Board of Health, 16 (Dec. 1901): 11218. (Hereafter: "Camden Board of Health Report.") 18 Mrs. Brower and Dr. Kensinger quoted in "Vaccinated Boy, Teta.n.u.s Stricken, May Recover." Dr. Kensinger's name is mispelled as "Kinsinger" in this newspaper story. On the Brower family, see Twelfth Census of the United States (1900): Schedule No. 1: Population, Camden, NJ, Supervisor's District No. 6, Enumeration District No. 77.

19 "Camden's Lockjaw Panic." Twelfth Census of the United States (1900): Schedule No. 1-Population: Camden, NJ, Supervisor's District No. 6, Enumeration District No. 77. "Camden Board of Health Report," 114.

20 "Another Death from Lockjaw," NYTRIB, Nov. 14, 1901, 6. "Camden's Lockjaw Panic." "Vaccination and Lockjaw," NYT, Nov. 14, 1901, 2. "Vaccination Leads to a Boy's Death," PNA, Nov. 14, 1901, 3. Twelfth Census of the United States (1900): Schedule No. 1-Population: Camden, NJ, Supervisor's District No. 6, Enumeration District No. 73. "Camden Board of Health Report," 114.

21 "Camden's Lockjaw Panic," NYS, Nov. 16, 1901, 4. "Vaccination Claims Another," NYTRIB, Nov. 15, 1901. Twelfth Census of the United States (1900): Schedule No. 1-Population: Camden, NJ, Supervisor's District No. 6, Enumeration District No. 59. "Camden Board of Health Report," 114.

22 Davis quoted in "Vaccination Claims Another." Dowling quoted in "Epidemic of Lockjaw Arouses a Whole City," NYW, Nov. 20, 1901, 6.

23 "Vaccination Claims Another." "Camden's Lockjaw Panic." See Twelfth Census of the United States (1900): Schedule No. 1-Population: Camden, NJ, Supervisor's District No. 6, Enumeration District No. 73 (Warrington); ibid., Enumeration District No. 49 (Cavallo). "Camden Board of Health Report," 114. The unnamed victim appears to have been William J. Bauer, aged seven, who according to Camden officials was the teta.n.u.s outbreak's first fatality: vaccinated October 12, he showed teta.n.u.s symptoms on November 1 and died two days later. Ibid., 113. On the Bauer family, see Twelfth Census of the United States (1900): Schedule No. 1-Population: Camden, NJ, Supervisor's District No. 6, Enumeration District No. 85.

24 "Lockjaw Deaths Continue," NYT, Nov. 17, 1901, 6. "Five Victims of Lockjaw," NYT, Nov. 17, 1901, 3. "Camden Board of Health Report," 114.

25 "Five Victims of Lockjaw." "Camden's Lockjaw Panic."

26 "Ibid. Other newspaper accounts and medical journal articles intimated that a single maker had been involved in the teta.n.u.s cases in Camden, but refrained from revealing the maker's ident.i.ty. On Mulford see Liebenau, Medical Science and Medical Industry, esp. 5778, 8081.1.

27 "Camden's Lockjaw Panic." Cochran did not have many dollars to spare. The fifty-one-year-old teamster lived in a rented house on Mechanic Street, about a mile from the Delaware River, with his wife Sarah and their children. In their twenty-six years of marriage, Sarah had given birth to six children. Annie was their second to die. James was going to know who was responsible for this loss. Twelfth Census of the United States (1900): Schedule No. 1-Population: Camden, NJ, Supervisor's District No. 6, Enumeration District No. 59. "Epidemic of Lockjaw Arouses a Whole City," NYW, Nov. 20, 1901, 6.

28 "Camden's Lockjaw Panic." "No Vaccination in Camden's Boundaries." Cooper v. Sh.o.r.e Elec. Co., 63 N.J.: 558 (1899). See John Fabian Witt, "From Loss of Services to Loss of Support: The Wrongful Death Statutes, the Origins of Modern Tort Law, and the Making of the Nineteenth-Century Family," Law and Social Inquiry, 25 (2000), 71755; Vivian A. Zelizer, Pricing the Priceless Child: The Changing Social Value of Children (New York: Basic Books, 1985), ch. 5.

29 "Camden's Lockjaw Panic." "No Vaccination in Camden's Boundaries." "Epidemic of Lockjaw Arouses a Whole City." "Teta.n.u.s Following Vaccination," MN, Nov. 23, 1901, 829.

30 "Teta.n.u.s in Philadelphia," NYT, Nov. 19, 1901. "Commercial Virus and Ant.i.toxin," ibid., Nov. 18, 1901, 6. On Atlantic City (Bessie Kessler, age nine), see "Death in Atlantic City," NYT, Nov. 19, 1901. "Vaccination Proves Fatal," SFC, Nov. 19, 1901, 4. On Bristol (Joseph Goldie), see "Teta.n.u.s Follows Vaccination," CO, Nov. 19, 1901, 4. See also "St. Louis; Camden, N.J.; Bristol, Pa.," Duluth News Tribune (Minnesota), Nov. 15, 1901, 4; "Compulsory Vaccination Exciting Camden, N. J.," Wilkes-Barre Times, Nov. 20, 1901, 1. On Cleveland, see Martin Friedrich, "How We Rid Cleveland of Smallpox," CMJ, 1 (Feb. 1902), 7783, esp. 79. Joseph McFarland, "Teta.n.u.s and Vaccination: An a.n.a.lytical Study of 95 Cases of the Complication," Lancet, Sept. 13, 1902, 73035, esp. 731.

31 "A Health Board Arraigned," NYT, Nov. 19, 1901. "The St. Louis Tragedy," Medical Dial (Minneapolis), 3 (December 1901), 3012. "St. Louis; Camden, N.J.; Bristol, Pa.," Duluth News-Tribune, Nov. 15, 1901, 4. A separate committee, appointed by the St. Louis Board of Health, later confirmed the coroner's judgment and recommended that the Health Department stop making ant.i.toxin. The department complied. Ramunas A. Kondratas, "The Biologics Control Act of 1902," in The Early Years of Federal Food and Drug Control, ed. James Harvey Young (Madison, WI: American Inst.i.tute of the History of Pharmacy, 1982), 15.

32 "A Tempest in Rochester: Frightened Parents Refuse to Allow School Children to Be Vaccinated," NYTRIB, Nov. 20, 1901, 6.

33 "No Vaccination in Camden's Boundaries." "Resolutions of the Camden Board of Health," MN, Nov. 23, 1901, 828. "Lockjaw Checks All Vaccination," PNA, Nov. 19, 1901, 3.

34 See Louis Galambos with Jane Eliot Sewell, Networks of Innovation: Vaccine Development at Merck, Sharp & Dohme, and Mulford, 18951995 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995); Liebenau, Medical Science and Medical Industry; John P. Swann, Academic Scientists and the Pharmaceutical Industry: Cooperative Research in Twentieth-Century America (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988).

35 For a lucid short discussion, see Ian Glynn and Jenifer Glynn, The Life and Death of Smallpox, 17789.

36 NCBOH 189798, 35. Chapin, Munic.i.p.al Sanitation, 580. Donald R. Hopkins, Princes and Peasants, 7781. Fenner et al., Smallpox and Its Eradication, 263.

37 George Henry Fox, A Practical Treatise on Smallpox, 26. Herbert Spencer, Facts and Comments (New York: D.Appleton and Co., 1902), 271, 107. USROSENAU, 6. Hopkins, Princes and Peasants, 85. The persistent a.s.sociation of vaccination with syphilis persisted long after the curtailment of the arm-to-arm method ended the problem. See, e.g., Sylva.n.u.s Stall, What a Young Man Ought to Know, rev. ed. (Philadelphia: Vir Publis.h.i.+ng Company, 1904), 142.

38 Francis G. Martin, "The Propagation, Preservation, and Use of Vaccine Virus," address to the American Medical a.s.sociation, May 7, 1896, in IBOH 1897, 169.

39 Samuel W. Abbott, "Vaccination," in A Reference Handbook of the Medical Sciences, rev. ed. by Albert H. Buck, vol. 8 (New York: William Wood and Company, 1904), 11153, esp. 13334.

40 Abbott, "Vaccination," 13334.

41 Martin ad in BMSJ, unpaginated advertising sheet, Aug. 29, 1872. "A Vaccination Farm," Arkansas Gazette, Sept. 25, 1877. "Animal Vaccination: Dr. Martin's Vaccine Farm at Brookline, Ma.s.s.," Frank Leslie's Ill.u.s.trated Newspaper (New York), Aug. 6, 1881, 382.

42 "Virus: The Difference Between Humanized and Animal Matter-Rearing Calves for Purposes of Vaccination," St. Louis Globe-Democrat [orig. from Brooklyn Eagle], Jan. 6, 1876, 3. John Duffy, A History of Public Health in New York City, 18661966, 151. Ma.s.sachusetts enacted the nation's first compulsory education law in 1852 and its first compulsory vaccination law in 1855. By 1918, every state had compulsory education. Compulsory vaccination spread far less uniformly, with many state legislatures leaving the matter to local communities and their boards of health.

43 J. W. Compton & Son advertis.e.m.e.nt, Transactions of the Indiana State Medical Society, 1882 (Indianapolis, 1882), 331. Wyeth advertis.e.m.e.nt, Drugs and Medicines of North America (Cincinnati, 18841885), Vol. 1: 21. "A Vaccination Farm," Arkansas Gazette, Sept. 25, 1877. "Animal Vaccination," 382. Oscar C. DeWolf, "Remarks on Sources and Varieties of Vaccine Virus," Chicago Medical Journal and Examiner, 42 (1881): 48186. J. W. Hodge, "What Is the Stuff Variously Termed 'Vaccine Virus,' 'Bovine Virus,' 'Animal Lymph,' 'Calf Lymph,' 'Pure Calf-Lymph,' Etc.," Medical Advance, March 1908, 16071, esp. 168.

44 More recently DNA a.n.a.lysis has confirmed that vaccinia, cowpox, and smallpox are distinct. See Glynn and Glynn, The Life and Death of Smallpox, 17789.

45 Walter Reed, "What Credence Should Be Given to the Statements of Those Who Claim to Furnish Vaccine Lymph Free of Bacteria," Journal of Practical Medicine, 5 (July 1895), 53234. W. F. Elgin, "The Propagation of Vaccine and Glycerinated Lymph," Proceedings of the Fifteenth Annual Meeting of the Conference of State and Provincial Boards of Health of North America, Atlantic City, June 12, 1900 (Providence, 1900), 51.

46 R. L. Pitfield, "Report on the Vaccine Farms and Ant.i.toxin Propagating Establishments of the United States, and Their Products, and on Certain Imported Ant.i.toxins," Twelfth Annual Report of the State Board of Health and Vital Statistics of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania (1896) vol. 1 (State Printer, 1897), 186, 193, 196, 154.

47 Abbott, "Vaccination," 142. USROSENAU, 6. Glynn and Glynn, Life and Death of Smallpox, 17273. J. J. Kinyoun, "The Action of Glycerin on Bacteria in the Presence of Cell Exudates," Journal of Experimental Medicine, 7 (1905): 72532.

48 Mulford Company display advertis.e.m.e.nts, Medical World, 19 (December 1901), 17. On the connection between cities and hinterlands in the late nineteenth century, see William Cronon, Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1991).

49 Richard Hofstadter wrote, "The United States was born in the country and has moved to the city." The Age of Reform: From Bryan to F. D. R. (New York: Random House, 1955), 23. Liebenau, Medical Science and Medical Industry, 5778; Galambos with Sewell, Networks of Innovation, 932. Curiously, the latter work does not mention the Camden episode.

50 Mulford display advertis.e.m.e.nt, Medical Dial, 2 (Apr. 1900), xii. Galambos with Sewell, Networks of Innovation, 932.

51 Mulford display advertis.e.m.e.nt, Medical Dial, 2 (Apr. 1900), xii.

52 Elgin, "Propagation of Vaccine," 4655. See also, "How Mulford's Vaccine Is Made," display advertis.e.m.e.nt, ILLMJ, 51 (May 1902), pages not numbered. To compare Mulford's production practices with those of other makers, see esp. Abbott, "Vaccination," 13844; Chapin, Munic.i.p.al Sanitation, 584; Francis C. Martin, "The Propagation, Preservation, and Use of Vaccine Virus," MR, 49 (May 30, 1896), 75759; "The Public Health Laboratories of New York City and Their Products," New York State Journal of Medicine, 2 (Feb. 1902): 37; Theobald Smith, "The Preparation of Animal Vaccine," MC, Jan. 1, 1902, 10116; "Virus and Ant.i.toxin of the Health Board," NYT, Nov. 24, 1901, 5. On Canadian practices, see Pierrick Malissard, " 'Pharming' a l'ancienne: les Fermes Vaccinales Canadiennes," Canadian Historical Review, 85 (2004): 3562. See "Vaccine Calves on Market," CT, Mar. 3, 1901, 14.

53 Chapin, Munic.i.p.al Sanitation, 58084. Abbott, "Vaccination," 138, 14749.

54 John Duffy, A History of Public Health in New York City 18661966, 242.

55 W. B. Clarke, "The Pot Calls the Kettle Black," American Homeopathist, 26 (May 1900), 159, 160. Otis Clapp & Son display advertis.e.m.e.nt, New England Medical Gazette, Dec. 1897, unnumbered page in advertising section. Parke, Davis & Company display advertis.e.m.e.nt, ILLMJ, 51 (Feb. 1902), unpaginated advertising page.

56 John Anderson, Art Held Hostage: The Battle over the Barnes Collection (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2003), 730. Richard J. Wattenmaker, "Dr. Albert C. Barnes and the Barnes Foundation," in Great French Paintings from the Barnes Foundation: Impressionist, Post-impressionist, and Early Modern (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1993), 327.

57 "Lockjaw in Camden," NYTRIB, Nov. 21, 1901, 8. "Virus Did Not Cause Lockjaw," ibid., Nov. 20, 1901, 6. "Smallpox Virus Was Pure," NYS, Nov. 20, 1901, 5. "Vaccination and Lockjaw," ibid., Nov. 21, 1901, 6. See also, Albert C. Barnes, "Facts About the Camden Cases of Teta.n.u.s," letter to the editor, NYT, Nov. 21, 1901.

58 "Camden Board of Health Report," 11218, esp. 113. "No Lockjaw Germs in Virus," WP, Dec. 1, 1901, 24.

59 "The Teta.n.u.s Cases in Camden and St. Louis," ADPR, Nov. 25, 1901, 310.

60 "Vaccine and Ant.i.toxin," NYT, Dec. 8, 1901, 6. "The Teta.n.u.s Problem," PNA, Nov. 30, 1901, 8. "Smallpox: Vaccination and Teta.n.u.s," Current Literature, 32 (April 1902), 486. W. R. Inge Dalton, "Responsibility for the Recent Deaths from the Use of Impure Ant.i.toxins and Vaccine Virus," Canadian Journal of Medicine and Surgery, 11 (Jan. 1902), 35.

61 Robert N. Willson, "Teta.n.u.s Appearing in the Course of Vaccinia; Report of a Case," Proceedings of the Philadelphia County Medical Society, 22 (Nov. 1901), 35366, esp. 364. "Discussion," ibid., 36769, esp. 367.

62 "Three Children Expire from the Disease After Vaccination," NYTRIB, Nov. 27, 1901, 14; "Another Case of Teta.n.u.s," ibid., Dec. 5, 1901, 6. "More Deaths from Teta.n.u.s: Poisoned Vaccine Still Proving Fatal at Camden, N.J.," Omaha World-Herald, Nov. 27, 1901, 1. "More Deaths from Lockjaw," Medical News, Dec. 7, 1901, 909. "Another Teta.n.u.s Victim Succ.u.mbs," Philadelphia Inquirer, Dec. 8, 1901, 7. Twelfth Census of the United States (1900): Schedule No. 1-Population: Camden, NJ, Supervisor's District No. 6, Enumeration District No. 67 (Overby); ibid., Enumeration District No. 73 (Rosevelt). Neither Heath nor Johnson was recorded in the 1900 census in Camden County. "Camden Board of Health Report," 115.

63 "Vaccine and Ant.i.toxin," NYT, Dec. 8, 1901, 4. "A Medical Inquiry as to Vaccine and Ant.i.toxin," ibid., Dec. 28, 1901, 6.

64 Arthur Van Harlingen, "Remarks on Vaccination in Relation to Skin Diseases and Eruptions Following Vaccination," PMJ, 9 (Jan. 25, 1902), 18486, esp. 186. John H. McCollom, "Vaccination: Accidents and Untoward Effects," MC, Jan. 1, 1902, 12538.

65 NCBOH 189798, 37-38. F. T. Campbell, "Vaccination," PMJ, 9 (Apr. 12, 1902): 668. See also CAMBOH 1902, 8.

66 M. J. Rosenau, "Report on the examination of dried lymph and glycerinized vaccine lymph," enclosed with Walter Wyman to C. P. Wertenbaker, Apr. 6, 1900, CPWL, vol. 1. "Dr. Rosenau Dies," NYT, Apr. 10, 1946, 25. "Milton J. Rosenau, M. D.," MMWR Weekly, Oct. 15, 1999, 907.

67 Milton J. Rosenau, "Dry Points Versus Glycerinated Virus, From a Bacteriologic Standpoint," USSGPHMHS 1902, 44649, esp. 449. "New York Academy of Medicine," Pediatrics, 13 (May 1, 1902): 34449.

68 Rosenau, "Dry Points Versus Glycerinated Virus," 446. "Society Proceedings: New York Academy of Medicine," MN, 80 (Mar. 22, 1902), 562ff. Rosenau published his full report in March 1903, USROSENAU. "Conference of State and Provincial Boards of Health of North America," MR, Nov. 15, 1902, 789.

69 Cleveland Medical Journal quoted in "Vaccine Lymph," Sanitarian, March 1902. Ibid., 240, 239. "This state of affairs is causing profound disquietude among conscientious medical pract.i.tioners." "Commercial Virus and Ant.i.toxin," NYT, Nov. 18, 1901, 6.

70 John W. LeSeur, "Vaccination, A Privilege or a Duty?" in Transactions of the Homeopathic Medical Society of the State of New York for the Year 1902, vol. 37 (Rochester, 1902), 52.

71 Theobald Smith, "The Preparation of Animal Vaccine," in MC, Jan. 1, 1902, 11415.

72 Dalton, "Responsibility for the Recent Deaths," 35. On decommodification, see Daniel T. Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings: Social Politics in a Progressive Age (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1998); Amy Dru Stanley, From Bondage to Contract: Wage Labor, Marriage, and the Market in the Age of Slave Emanc.i.p.ation (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 26768.

73 Eugene A. Darling, "Vaccination: The Technique," MC, Jan. 1, 1902, 118. Ann Bowman Jannetta, "Public Health and the Diffusion of Vaccination in j.a.pan," in Asian Population History, ed. Ts'uijung Liu, et al. (New York, 2001), 292305. "Hearing Over," BG, Feb. 5, 1902, 4. "Death from Lockjaw," CC, Jan. 4, 1902, 5. R. E. Doolittle, "Inspection of Imported Food and Drug Products," Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture, 1910 (Was.h.i.+ngton, 1911), 201.

74 "Regulation of Serum" [from American Medicine], WP, Dec. 25, 1901, 11. "Should Cities Go into the Drug Business?" St. Louis Medical and Surgical Reporter, 74 (March 1898), 152. "Vaccine Makers Protest," WP, Mar. 16, 1900, 5. "On Government Compet.i.tion," ADPR, Oct. 14, 1901, 218. W. R. Inge Dalton, "Munic.i.p.al Socialism of a Dangerous Kind," letter to the editor, NYT, Nov. 18, 1901, 5. Daniel DeLeon, "Hiding Their Own Crimes," Daily People, Nov. 19, 1901, http://www.slp.org/pdf/de_leon/eds1901/nov19_1901.pdf, accessed Feb. 23, 2009. Practical considerations also worked against manufacture by state and local health boards. In many states, the limited demand for the product during long periods when smallpox was not prevalent could not justify the cost of maintaining a state farm. The southern states had virtually no vaccine production facilities, either state or commercial; even in states with relatively strong health boards, such as Kentucky and North Carolina, officials were content to recommend vaccines manufactured in the Northeast or Middle West. See Gardner T. Swarts, "Is It Advisable for a State to Provide Vaccine Virus," in PABOH 1900, 46768.

75 Editorial favorably quoting an unnamed writer, in "The St. Louis Tragedy," Medical Dial, 3 (Dec. 1901), 302. "Vaccine and Ant.i.toxin," NYT, Dec. 8, 1901, 6. "Government Control of Therapeutic Serums, Vaccine, Etc.," MR, Mar. 29, 1902, 495. See "Topics of the Times," NYT, Mar. 20, 1902, 8. "Vaccine Virus and Ant.i.toxin," Sanitarian, May 1902, 417. In 1898, the New York County Medical Society had sponsored a bill in the New York Senate to prevent the health department from selling its vaccine and ant.i.toxin. Duffy, Public Health in New York City, 241.1.

76 "Regulation of Serum." "Government Control of Therapeutic Serums, Vaccine, Etc.," MR, Mar. 29, 1902, 495. Kondratas, "Biologics Control Act," 17.

77 "Government Control of Therapeutic Serums," 495. "Discussion," Transactions of the Homeopathic Medical Society of the State of New York for the Year 1902, vol. 37 (Rochester, 1902), 60.