The Principles of Economics Part 9

[Sidenote: Depreciation of manufacturing appliances]

There is a great difference in the length of life of manufacturing appliances. The building is fairly durable; yet an average depreciation-rate of one and one half per cent. a year must be allowed to offset a reduction in its value of over fifty per cent, in thirty years. Machinery differs greatly in durability; well-made, substantial machinery depreciates about five per cent. yearly. The engines and boilers depreciate more rapidly than the running gear; the loose tools have to be replaced every second to fourth year; while the materials consumed in the industry must be repaired and replaced at every repet.i.tion of the process of manufacture. If a factory is to be maintained in its efficiency in accordance with the terms of the renting contract, and is to continue its renting power, everything about it must be from time to time repaired and replaced.

[Sidenote: Neglect of repairs often has evil effects]

4. _Neglect or postponement of repairs must cause a falling off of the rent-earning power._ The neglect of repairs may have different results in the factory. The neglect of one kind simply reduces present rental while not preventing the future restoration of the plant to its full efficiency. If certain necessary tools wear out and are not replaced, the factory as a whole will be less efficient. Each part of the entire outfit being needed in due proportion, the loss in rental will correspond not merely to the lost efficiency of the missing tools, but to the crippled efficiency of the remaining appliances. Failure to apply seed to the land causes the land as a whole to be useless for that year's crop. In other cases, neglect of repairs increases the expenses of repairs and cuts off future rental. The adages, "A st.i.tch in time saves nine," and "An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure," must be acted upon in every industry. The neglect to repair a roof causes damage to an amount many times the cost of a new roof. Failure to replace a bolt costing five cents may result in the rack and ruin of a machine worth many dollars. A handful of earth on a dike may save a whole country from destruction.

[Sidenote: But sometimes is economical]

Neglect of repairs may be economical, however, when outer conditions have first reduced the demand for the agent and consequently the rental.

When the line of travel changes, it does not pay to keep an old hotel up to the same state of repair as when it had a great patronage. Old factories sometimes may better be allowed to depreciate while the price of repairs is invested in more prosperous industries. In a declining neighborhood the houses fall into decay, the owners seeing that "it would not pay" to keep them up.

-- II. DEPRECIATION IN RENT-EARNING POWER OF AGENTS KEPT IN REPAIR

[Sidenote: Repairs can not always prevent ultimate decay of agents]

1. _Even where repairs are thoroughly kept up and present rent is undiminished, future rents may be decreasing because of natural decay._ Changes go on in the substance of things which cannot be prevented by any attention to repairs. The wood in a framework will decay, the metals crystallize. There is also an unpreventable wear of parts that cannot be replaced without replacing the whole machine. It is the aim of the modern manufacturers to make machines like the wonderful one-horse shay, every part of equal durability. The development in America of the system of "interchangable parts" has greatly simplified and cheapened repairs, and has lengthened the working life of machines; nevertheless their lot is the sc.r.a.p-heap at last. This general depreciation appears to be nearly avoided in large factories where there is serial replacement of the parts, but occasionally some invention or some improvement of process necessitates an almost completely new equipment. An old man once said to me: "I have lived in this house forty years: it was well built, has been repainted regularly, has never been allowed to leak a drop, and it is as good as it ever was. I see no reason why it could not be kept to eternity if always kept in repair." But the same could not be said of the house now. In general, there is finally a termination of the rent-earning power of wealth, and the whole has to be replaced.

[Sidenote: Technical changes destroy the uses of agents]

2. _A change in inventions and processes may reduce the rent of agents, independently of their material condition._ Rent is dependent on the indirect relation of things to wants; that relation may be changed if some other agent is found fitted to serve these wants more directly. Not only do the materials of houses change, but fas.h.i.+on and engineering skill change, making the old mansions cheerless and inconvenient, and affecting their rent-earning power. At every moment, in a progressive society, many rent-earning agents are being thrown out of use. The machinery in flour-mills has been almost completely changed, parts of it repeatedly, while the roller process has been subst.i.tuted for the old millstones. Water-power, because of its uncertainty, has been replaced in many places by steam-power, and in many places steam-power in turn, has been rivaled by water-power since the improvements in the generation and transmission of electricity. A change in the process of making paper threw out of use much machinery that was only in part saved by its removal and adaptation to the making of coa.r.s.er grades of paper. Many minor inventions in the iron industry, still more the invention of the Bessemer process, threw out of use great numbers of the old appliances.

[Sidenote: Industrial circ.u.mstances affect the uses of agents]

3. _A change in the outer conditions that give occasion to the use of agents may cause depreciation._ The exhaustion of materials on which machinery is employed may reduce its usefulness. A sawmill located in the midst of a forest has a high-earning power while the forest lasts, but when the forest is cut off the mill itself declines in value. Unless it can be removed to another forest and thus have its earning power renewed, it will have the value only of sc.r.a.p-iron; it has become an indirect agent in the wrong place. Oil-boring machinery where a rich supply of oil is found has a high rental for a time, but when the oil-fields give out the machinery falls in value, being worth more or less than the cost of transporting it according as the next oil-field is near or far. Changes in fas.h.i.+ons, calling for different kinds of products, cause a depreciation in the value of the old agents. Coa.r.s.e salt, evaporated by the sun, was used by our fathers, but the finer product of the steam process is driving out the product of the old solar plants. As homespun went out of use, much machinery still in good physical condition was cast aside. Changes in transportation work revolutions in industrial methods. Many prosperous small forges on the country roads of Pennsylvania became valueless after the building of the railroads. New forges were built at favored points where materials and products could be s.h.i.+pped by rail.

[Sidenote: Various grades of efficiency in rent-bearers]

4. _The agents employed in any industry range from the more efficient, high rent, down to the less efficient, low rent, grades in a more or less regular series._ It follows that as these changes are going on, the place of agents on the scale of efficiency is constantly s.h.i.+fting. The various agents represent all grades of efficiency. One depreciates, possibly is restored later and takes a high place, and again depreciates until finally it is thrown out of use. One loom embodies the latest improvements and corresponds to the most fertile field; another can still be made to yield a little rent; the use of a third results in certain loss. A great ma.s.s of no-rent agents lie just below the margin of utilization in every industry. Some of these are permanently abandoned; some will be taken back into use when business conditions improve. When the iron industry is dull, many forges are out of blast; but when iron is again in demand, there is a gradual taking up of the abandoned forges, factories, and machines as they are brought within the margin of profitable utilization. Many agents not actually earning a rent, may become rent-earning through a change in business conditions.

-- III. DESTRUCTION OF NATURAL STORES OF MATERIALS

[Sidenote: Destruction of the American forests]

1. _A large part of industry is now conducted without regard to the preservation of the source of income._ A striking example of this is the use, or rather the destruction, of the American forests. In the last century the demand for lumber grew rapidly both on account of domestic needs and of the needs of the older countries. Great quant.i.ties of wood have been used and still greater quant.i.ties wasted, trees being girdled, the ground burned over, the timber destroyed in any way that would clear the soil--timber which to-day would be of far more value than is the cleared land on which it stood. Considering present needs and conditions, the labor seems to have been worse than wasted.

[Sidenote: Effects on value of timber]

The direct effect of this destruction of the supply has been the increase in the value of timber. To the settlers much of the timber was worse than useless; they paid and labored to get rid of it; now the supplies of lumber must be sought on the very margins of our territory: Florida, Maine, northern Michigan and Wisconsin, Was.h.i.+ngton, and Oregon.

The supplies in Was.h.i.+ngton and Oregon are almost unavailable in the Eastern states on account of the cost of transportation. Professor Marsh, thirty years ago, strikingly characterized the policy that has been pursued: "We are breaking up the foundation timbers and the wainscoting of the house in which we live in order to boil our mess of pottage."

[Sidenote: Physical effects]

The indirect effects of these changes are fully as great as the direct ones. Forests greatly affect climate, temperature, and soil; they influence the humidity. They equalize the flow of streams, moderate floods, and by preventing the was.h.i.+ng down of the rich soil, keep the mountain sides from becoming bare and sterile rocks. So, within the last two decades, the people in America have begun to think of forestry. Its purpose is to restore the forests to the condition of permanent rent-earners, to make the mountains yield not a temporary supply, but a perpetual crop of timber.

[Sidenote: Possible exhaustion of the coal-supply]

2. _The extraction of coal and other mineral deposits reduces for future generations a supply already limited._ The coal deposits in the earth have only recently been drawn upon. A small city like Ithaca probably uses to-day a greater quant.i.ty of coal than was used in all Europe two centuries ago. The large deposits of coal and their early development in England long gave a great advantage to English industry over that of other countries. In England, however, has first been felt the fear of the exhaustion of the coal-supply. Professor Jevons, in 1861, sounded the note of alarm; he prophesied that because the coal deposits of America were many times as great as those of England, industrial supremacy must inevitably pa.s.s to America. Already the supremacy in coal and iron production has pa.s.sed to America, and that in textiles soon will come. In England the accessible supply of coal is limited, deeper shafts must be sunk, and the coal gotten with greater difficulty and at greater expense. Coal has risen in price in England within the last few years, and will continue to rise in the future. The coal deposits of America are thirty-seven times as great as those of England, but even these will soon be exhausted. And yet on the part of all except the coal trust, there appears in America a thoughtless disregard for the future.

Supplies of copper, iron, and lead in favored positions are likewise limited, and are being rapidly centered in the hands of great companies.

The increasing demand for these products insures a steadily rising income from their annual use. The value of the mines, being based on the series of incomes they will yield, may increase while their unused treasures dwindle in quant.i.ty.

[Sidenote: Many natural resources are being rapidly exhausted]

3. _The exhaustion of natural stores of material is due to civilization, but it threatens to put an end to industrial progress._ The savage does not go deep enough to use up permanently the world in which he lives. He uses the fruits that he finds, and those fruits are, almost without exception, renewed the next year. The only mines that were worked out in ancient times were gold and silver mines, while the mines of useful metals were touched but lightly. Within the last century the earth's crust has been exploited with startling rapidity. Scientific knowledge and mechanical improvement have combined to unlock the storehouses of the geologic ages. At the ever-increasing rate of their use, many important materials must be exhausted in the not far distant future.

While it is probable that subst.i.tutes will be discovered for many of them, the outlook in some directions has little promise. To treat terminable incomes, exhaustible sources of supply, as permanent sources of income, leads alike to unsound theory and to reckless practice.

CHAPTER 12

INCREASE OF RENT-BEARERS AND OF RENTS

-- I. EFFORTS OF MEN TO INCREASE PRODUCTS AND RENT-BEARERS

[Sidenote: Desire for better agents impels men to improvements]

1. _While man destroys some agents of production he multiplies many others._ We have noted many kinds of depreciation, destruction, and wearing out of wealth; but the normal thing in a healthy society is an increase, on the whole, of rent-bearers. The increase of rents is due to two causes: changes in the agents by which they become more efficient technically, or more numerous; and changes taking place outside of the agents, affecting the utility of the products. The first of these will be considered in this section.

The increase of the efficiency of agents is usually the aim of the individual producer, and thus is brought about an increase of the stock of wealth. In some cases, however, improvements such as the dredging of harbors or as the protecting of forests, are made by men collectively through the agency of governments. Somewhere, however, the desire for these changes must arise in the minds of individuals. Increase of most things involves "cost" or sacrifice, in the psychological sense; that is, man must strive, perhaps suffer, to get a certain result. This end, therefore, must be in itself desirable, and social organization must be such as to present a motive to the men to make the needed effort.

[Sidenote: Improvements by adaptation of natural resources]

2. _Rent-bearers may be increased in quant.i.ty and improved in quality by the adaptation of natural resources to man's purposes._ To get food, men use the tracts of land that under the conditions give the largest product. Other tracts less fertile, or for some reason less available, are ditched, tiled, and diked, and fertilizers are carried up steep hillsides to make a soil upon the very crags. In commerce and transportation, new ways are opened by ca.n.a.ls, railroads, and tunnels.

An isthmian ca.n.a.l will raise the efficiency of s.h.i.+ps plying between New York and San Francisco, enabling them to carry a greater amount of freight within a year. The tolls will represent to the users an expenditure only partially offsetting the increased efficiency of the agents of transportation. By the building of wharves, the dredging of harbors, and by many other methods, indirect agents are constantly growing in number and efficiency.

[Sidenote: Machinery is an adaptation of natural resources]

3. _Rent-bearers may be increased by inventions and improvements that make machines stronger, quicker, and better._ This proposition is not logically different from the preceding. A machine is an arrangement of material things through which force may be indirectly applied to move matter. No fast line divides machinery as regards form, purpose, or cause of value, from the artificially improved natural agents that we have been discussing. Just as a field is drained, plowed, and cultivated to fit it better to yield a crop, so is the iron ore shaped into a form called a machine, better fitted to cut, carve, and weave as man wills.

Machines are merely adaptations of natural resources.

[Sidenote: Bettering quality of agents]

Increase in machinery may be either in quality or quant.i.ty. The two causes have in most cases the same result. If the quality or efficiency of looms is doubled, it is as if their number had grown in like proportion. In its economic function the beast of burden may not illogically be cla.s.sed with inanimate machines. The horses in America have been remarkably improved of recent years by the importation of thoroughbred stock from Europe. Ten or fifteen years ago the number of horses in the United States was found to have decreased, and there was much comment on this evidence of a declining industry. It was not at once recognized that there was embodied in horse-flesh more horse-power than ever before, as a single Norman horse has the strength of several Mexican mustangs. Numbers alone are not the measure of efficiency.

[Sidenote: Increasing number and better grouping of agents]

4. _The increase of wealth and the betterment of environment go on as well through the increase in the number of appliances and through their improved arrangement, as through changes in their kind._ A machine is an adjustment of various natural agents to each other so as to make a more efficient agent, and machines in turn may be adjusted as parts of a larger system of production. The ideal of the modern factory system is so to arrange the machinery that no bit of material will make an unnecessary motion. The log, once started through the mill, is carried automatically from one machine to another until it emerges as a roll of paper or as a box of tooth-picks, ready for use. In an American watch-factory one man tends twelve or fifteen automatic machines. A small bra.s.s rod is fed automatically to the machine; a piece is cut off, is picked up by a human-like metal hand; is put into a lathe, and s.h.i.+fted or held firmly while it goes through fifteen or twenty processes; and then is dropped into a box where it is ready for the "a.s.sembling" of the watch. As the machinery improves, factories making allied products are grouped to make a system still more efficient.

As the number of agents increases they are distributed so as to be where most useful to the owner. A man having two umbrellas keeps one at his office and the other at home; a student having two books of the same kind keeps one at his room and the other at the university; a farmer having two hoes keeps one at the barn and the other in a distant field, and by this distribution the agents are increased in efficiency.

[Sidenote: A larger and better environment]

The aim of a progressive society is to enlarge the environment, and constantly to adapt it better to the service of wants. This is done largely by mechanical agents, which capture the natural forces of the world, put them into the right place at the right time, and make them do the right thing, or which group and relate the materials of the world in the right ways. Some of the groupings in the chemical and physical world that do not fit man's purposes may be made to do so. The world in this way becomes more and more a great workshop, better and better adjusted to man's wants.